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发布于11月19日 11:15 | 评论数(1) 阅读数(1846) | 我的文章

Neurocognition of Language Processing 转载

9 Neurocognition of Language Processing

The year 1997 was an eventful year for the 'Neurocognition of language processing' project. In the first place, the work of the group was hampered by the move to the temporary accommodation. Thanks to the efforts of the Technical Group, one ERP laboratory was kept running, but unfortunately one laboratory had to be closed down for the duration of the rebuilding of the Institute. This closure has inevitably led to a reduction in the number of experiments that could be performed during 1997. A second major event followed from the fact that 1997 was the last year of the 5-year grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). This required efforts to obtain further funding for the project, which is almost completely financed via external sources. In June 1997, notification was received from NWO that a grant proposal submitted by C. Brown, Hagoort, Indefrey, and Levelt, had been awarded. This will enable the group (in a slightly reduced size) to continue research for the period 1998-2002.

9.1 The neural architecture of language processing

9.1.1 The neural architecture of morphological processing

Indefrey, Brown and Hagoort, in collaboration with H. Herzog (Institut f黵 Medizin, Forschungsanlage J黮ich), R. Seitz and M. Sach (Heinrich-Heine-Universit鋞 D黶seldorf) completed the data analysis of a PET experiment on morphological processing (see Annual Report 1996). The PET experiment was designed to determine whether the same or different cortical loci subserve regular and irregular morphological production. To this end, past tense and participle forms of verbs that were presented in the infinitive had to be produced and inserted in a neutral sentence frame. In a baseline condition, the verbs were already presented in their inflected form so that only repetition was required. The verbs were varied along the dimensions 'regular vs. irregular' and 'high vs. low frequency of inflected forms in spoken language'.

When compared to baseline, both regular and irregular verbal inflection induced significant regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) increases in midbrain and cerebellum, but showed no overlap in cortical areas (see figures 9.1 and 9.2). An analysis for areas that were sensitive to the regular-irregular distinction, irrespective of word form frequency, revealed twelve cortical areas with a significant rCBF increase for irregular verbs when directly compared to regular verbs, and two areas for the reverse comparison (see figures 9.3 and 9.4). Two areas were sensitive to word form frequency, irrespective of regularity (regular and irregular scans collapsed), with Broca's area (BA 45) being more active for low frequency verbs (see figures 9.5 and 9.6). The stronger cortical activation for irregular verbs, and the small overlap in activation for regular and irregular verbs are consistent with dual process models. This interpretation is supported by the reaction time data (see Annual Report 1996) showing a clear effect of the regular vs. irregular distinction. However, a characterization of the two processes as 'lexical' (irregular) vs. 'rule based' (regular) is not supported, since reaction times were equally increased for both low frequency regular and irregular verbs.

Click on an image to enlarge it
Figure 9.1	Figure 9.2	Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4	Figure 9.5	Figure 9.6

9.1.2 The reading of words and pseudowords

Indefrey, in collaboration with O. Gruber (Heinrich-Heine-Universit鋞 D黶seldorf), A. Kleinschmidt (Wellcome Institute for Cognitive Neurology, London), and S. Posse (Institut f黵 Medizin, Forschungsanlage J黮ich) carried out a new fMRI experiment which was designed to replicate (a) the results obtained in a previous PET experiment on the reading of words and pseudowords (see Annual Report 1994), and (b) improve our understanding of the nature of left lateralized premotor activations that are found for pseudowords relative to words in the PET experiment when both kinds of stimuli were read aloud. One possible explanation of these activations was that they were elicited by the pronunciation of phonotactically legal but novel syllables contained in the set of pseudoword stimuli. In order to articulate novel syllables it is necessary to assemble a syllable motor code, whereas in the case of frequently used syllables such a code might be retrieved from a mental 'syllabary' (see Levelt 1989, p. 327). To test this hypothesis, four sets of bisyllabic stimuli varying both words and pseudowords along the additional dimension 'high vs. low syllable frequency in spoken language' were prepared. The stimuli were read out in a whispering voice. Single subject analyses of the fMRI data were carried out with SPM96. In six out of seven male native speakers of German, left lateralized premotor activations similar to those obtained in the PET experiment were replicated when comparing syllable frequency matched pseudowords to words. Conversely, direct comparisons of low versus high syllable frequency pseudowords and of low versus high syllable frequency words did not show (except for one subject in the case of words) any left lateralized premotor activations. The data provide evidence against the hypothesis that the additional activation of the left premotor cortex observed for pseudoword pronunciation is due to the assembly of syllable motor codes.

9.1.3 The neural architecture of mental calculation

Indefrey also collaborated with Gruber, Kleinschmidt, and Posse on an fMRI experiment on mental calculation. Models of mental calculation distinguish mathematical fact retrieval (e.g., 3 x 4 = 12) from calculation procedures applied for computation beyond the stored facts (e.g., 3 x 24 equals 3 x 20 plus 3 x 4). In addition, there is working memory involvement and language processing (inner speech). There were five experimental conditions:

silent serial multiplication and division with factors below 10;
silent serial multiplication and division with one factor greater than 10;
silent serial digit substitutions on 2-digit numbers;
silent serial letter substitutions on 2-letter groups, and
silent serial pseudo multiplication and division on letters with the instruction to mimic the subvocal sentence production involved in mental calculation (e.g., 'FH times D equals FH.').

A preliminary data analysis showed a bilateral parietal and prefrontal activation pattern which was similar in all tasks but with stronger left-dominant asymmetry in tasks (a) and (b).

9.1.4 The neural architecture of syntactic production

Indefrey, Brown and Hagoort, in collaboration with H. Herzog (Institut f黵 Medizin, Forschungsanlage J黮ich), and R. Seitz (Heinrich-Heine-Universit鋞 D黶seldorf) started the data acquisition of a new PET experiment on syntactic processing. While the results of a previous PET experiment suggested a role for the dorsal part of Broca's area in syntactic processing but did not allow to differentiate between syntactic parsing and encoding (see Annual Reports 1995 and 1996), it is the aim of the new experiment to isolate the syntactic processing involved in language production.

9.2 Electrophysiological signatures of visual lexical processing

Brown, Hagoort, and Ter Keurs completed the analysis of an extensive set of data on Event Related Brain Potential (ERP) manifestations of visual lexical processing (see Annual Report 1995 and section 9.4.1). This work focused on the lexical-categorical distinction between open- and closed-class words, and addressed the disputed existence of an electrophysiological marker of this distinction. ERPs were recorded from young subjects whilst they read a story. Separate waveforms were computed for open- and closed-class words. Two aspects of the waveforms could be reliably related to vocabulary class. First, an early negativity in the 230 to 350 ms epoch, with a bilateral anterior predominance. This negativity was elicited by open- and closed-class words alike, was not affected by word frequency or word length, and had an earlier peak latency for closed-class words. Second, a frontal slow negative shift in the 350 to 500 ms epoch, largest over the left side of the scalp. This late negativity was only elicited by closed-class words. Although, in contrast to some claims in the literature, the early negativity can not serve as a qualitative marker of the open- and closed-class distinction, it does reflect the earliest electrophysiological manifestation of the availability of categorical information from the mental lexicon. These results suggest that the brain honors the distinction between open- and closed-class words, in relation to the different roles that they play in on-line sentence processing.

9.3 Semantic and syntactic integration processes during comprehension: ERPs and parsing

9.3.1 In search of the Left Anterior Negativity (LAN)

Next to the Syntactic Positive Shift (SPS) a more anterior negativity with its strongest effect over the left hemisphere has been reported in the literature in relation to syntactic processing. Friederici has hypothesized that this so-called LAN-effect occurs when the structural expectation for a particular word category (e.g., noun, verb) is violated. However, not all findings of LAN-effects have been consistent with this hypothesis. Brown, Hagoort, and Remmerswaal decided to test this hypothesis explicitly in an experiment that carefully controlled for factors other than word category. For this experiment we constructed syntactic prose sentences in which the usual semantic/pragmatic constraints do not apply. In this way the cloze probability for the crucial words in the two conditions is equal, namely zero. Here is an example of the Dutch sentence pairs that were used (together with literal English translations):

(1a) 'De anonieme adem geeft een bijzonder licht.'
(The anonymous breath gives a special light.)

(1b) * 'De anonieme ademen geeft een bijzonder licht.'
(The anonymous [to breath] gives a special light.)

Sentence (1b) is grammatically illegal due to a word category violation in the first NP: The expected noun is replaced by a verb (the critical words in the two conditions are underlined). Note that noun and verb are selected such that they are semantically maximally alike. According to Friederici's hypothesis the critical word in the (1b) version of the sentences should result in a LAN relative to the (1a) version of the sentences.

The results of this experiment were as follows: The critical word violating the word category expectation led to a frontally distributed SPS effect relative to the critical word in the grammatically correct version of the sentences. This is compatible with earlier findings of SPS effects to syntactic violations, even in syntactic prose (Hagoort & Brown, 1994). Next to this SPS, a LAN-effect was obtained for the ERPs elicited by the following verb (in the example sentences: geeft). These data are incompatible with the Friederici hypothesis. What exactly drives the LAN-effect remains to be determined. An alternative proposal by Kutas and colleagues has linked LAN-effects to working memory load during on-line sentence processing. Although our experiment did not directly test this hypothesis, the LAN-effect on the word following the word category violation is not incompatible with such an account, under the reasonable assumption that a violation increases the working memory load for processes involved in sentence interpretation.

9.3.2 ERP studies on sentence processing in discourse

Together with Brown and Hagoort, Van Berkum explored various aspects of sentence processing in discourse by means of ERPs. Earlier research had shown that sentence processing is highly incremental, in that every word is immediately related to a syntactic and semantic representation of the unfolding sentence. A word that signals that the (only or preferred) syntactic analysis of prior sentence material must be abandoned, for example, often elicits an SPS in the ERP within about 500 ms. With most of the prior research using isolated sentences, however, little is known about the nature and time course of those aspects of sentence processing that are particularly relevant in ongoing discourse. We explored three of them within the same discourse ERP experiment (plus an isolated sentences control experiment).

9.3.2.1 Referential processing in discourse

When people encounter a definite NP, how quickly can they identify its referent(s) in earlier discourse? The picture that emerges from the literature on anaphor resolution is complex, with some data suggesting that people begin to look for referents as they process the noun, but with other evidence suggesting delayed processing. We addressed the issue by asking subjects to read (the Dutch equivalents of) sentences beginning like 'David told the girl that..' in short story contexts that had introduced either two referents for a critical NP, e.g., two girls, or just a single one. The ERP results revealed that this had a very rapid impact on processing at the noun: starting at about 280 ms after its onset, a noun like 'girl' elicited a significantly more negative ERP waveform in a 2-referent than in a 1-referent discourse context (see figure 9.7a). This early referential ambiguity effect shows that people not only begin to look for referents immediately at the noun, but can determine whether a definite NP has a unique referent in earlier discourse or not within a mere 280 ms.

Figure 9.7a.

Discourse-referential ambiguity effect. Grand average ERP, at Fz, elicited by a singular noun (CW, critical word) presented in a 1-referent discourse context (solid line) and in a 2-referent discourse context (dotted line). Negative is up.

9.3.2.2 Parsing in discourse

Can people use such referential information to help parse a subsequent structural ambiguity? Right after this NP, the sentence continuation was temporarily ambiguous between a complement clause ('David told the girl that there would be some visitors') and a relative clause ('David told the girl that had been on the phone to hang up'). Earlier research had suggested that if an ambiguous fragment like 'David told the girl that..' is presented in isolation, people implicitly expect it to continue with a complement clause. The results of our isolated sentences control experiment confirmed this: subsequent disambiguation as a relative clause (at 'had') elicited a SPS in the ERP waveform, which suggests that people were biased towards the complement clause. The results of our discourse experiment, however, clearly showed that such parsing biases are immediately adapted to the specific discourse context. In particular, whereas subsequent disambiguation as a relative clause elicited an SPS in 1-referent discourse contexts, disambiguation as a complement clause elicited an SPS in 2-referent discourse contexts (see figure 9.7b). Together with several other results, this suggests that after a referentially ambiguous NP ('the girl' in 2-referent context), people are more inclined to immediately pursue the relative clause alternative, presumably because it may supply additional referential information (which girl? 'the girl that had been on the phone'). This finding is only consistent with models in which the parser is not an informationally encapsulated module.

Figure 9.7b

A discourse-induced Syntactic Positive Shift. Grand average ERP, at Pz, elicited by a complement clause disambiguation (at the CW) in a 1-referent discourse context (solid line; biasing towards a complement clause) and in a 2-referent discourse context (dotted line; biasing towards a relative clause).

9.3.2.3 Semantic integration in discourse

Finally, how quickly are the incoming words of a sentence related to a semantic representation of the prior discourse? To examine this, several target sentences in the discourse experiment contained a critical word that was semantically consistent with the local sentence environment, but not with the wider discourse (e.g., 'David told the girl that she was slow' in a discourse where this girl had in fact been fast). Relative to an acceptable control word (e.g., 'fast'), the anomalous word elicited a classical N400 effect (see figure 9.7c), which disappeared again when the same target sentences were read in isolation. This discourse-semantic violation effect shows that incoming words are very rapidly related to the semantics of earlier discourse, within about 200-250 ms.

Figure 9.7c

Discourse-semantic N400 effect. Grand average ERP, at Pz, elicited by a critical word (CW) that is acceptable (solid line) or anomalous (dotted line) in current discourse.

9.4 ERP studies on language disorders

9.4.1 ERP characteristics of open- and closed-class words in Broca patients with agrammatic comprehension

Ter Keurs completed the full ERP data acquisition of an experiment which further examined the ERP characteristics of open- and closed-class words in Broca patients with agrammatic comprehension, and the relation between the impaired processing of these two word types and the patients' comprehension deficit. In a previous experiment, open- and closed-class words were presented in a short story, focusing on the functional role of these items (see Annual Report 1995,1996). In the present experiment, the same target stimuli as in the story experiment were presented, but now in random lists. This was done to further examine the role of context on the processing differences between the two word types, in addition to the possible role of lexical-statistical factors. From a considerably larger number of tested subjects, thirteen agrammatic patients, eight non-aphasic patients with a right-hemisphere lesion, and twelve healthy control subjects were selected for statistical analysis of the ERP data. Preliminary results show that there are clear electrophysiological differences in the processing profiles for the two word types during the early stages of word processing in the control subjects, but not so in the agrammatic aphasics. This early vocabulary-class effect for the control subjects can be related to differences in the lexical processing of the two word types. The findings confirm the results from the story-experiment indicating that a delayed and/or incomplete availability of the lexical-categorical information associated with open- and closed-class items is an important factor in Broca's agrammatic comprehension.

Characterization of the neural sources underlying late (language) scalp-recorded ERP components with a physiologically justified spatial-temporal source-analysis model is usually not feasible, because too many sources have to be modeled and too little a priori knowledge exists as to their number (see Annual Report 1995). A reduction in the number of sources, particularly the ones that are common to different experimental conditions and thus less interesting, would therefore greatly benefit the analysis of these late ERP components. Therefore, G. Uijen (U. Nijmegen), D. Stegeman (U. Nijmegen) and Ter Keurs used a filtering technique (Generalized Singular Value Decomposition) that adequately discriminates between spatially unique and spatially common signals in different ERP data sets, independent of the time sequence and/or the amplitude of these sources.

9.4.2 Syntactic ERP effects in agrammatic comprehenders

Wassenaar continued the ERP data acquisition of an experiment on on-line syntactic processing in Broca aphasics with agrammatic comprehension. An earlier experiment (see Annual Report 1996) showed that Broca's aphasics with a severe agrammatic comprehension impairment differed in the way they deal with their syntactic comprehension disorder: some patients showed a relative delay in the time course of their syntactic integration process (delayed SPS-effect), others showed the use of a compensatory semantic strategy (N400-effect).

In the current study we tried to replicate these findings by again presenting subjects with (slightly different) spoken sentences containing violations of phrase structure rules (transpositions of adverbs and adjectives in Adv-Adj-N sequences). In addition, these syntactic violations were also embedded in so-called syntactic prose sentences (syntactic prose refers to sentences that are semantically uninterpretable, but are in accordance with the grammatical rules of the language). This syntactic prose manipulation was used to test whether an N400 effect would not appear in the syntactic prose condition, since a semantic compensatory strategy would not work for semantically incoherent sentences. In addition, sentences with sub-categorization violations (i.e., the constraint that obligatory intransitive verbs cannot take a noun as direct object is violated) were also presented, both in a normal and in a syntactic prose version.

To date, 13 normal elderly control subjects, 10 young control subjects, 5 Broca aphasics with a severe and 3 with a moderate agrammatic comprehension impairment, and 3 patients with a right hemisphere lesion have participated in the experiment. Statistical analyses of the results of the normal elderly control subjects showed SPS effects for the phrase structure violations both in the normal and in the syntactic prose condition, albeit that the size of the effect was reduced in the syntactic prose condition. In the normal prose condition, this SPS effect was preceded by a frontally distributed negativity, which was absent in the syntactic prose condition. For the subcategorization violations significant SPS effects were only found in the normal prose condition.

So far, only a limited set of Broca aphasics with severe agrammatic comprehension problems have been tested. Preliminary statistical analyses for the phrase structure violations suggest no presence of an SPS effect in the normal prose condition. However, interestingly, an SPS effect was found in the syntactic prose condition, with what appears to be a small latency difference relative to the normal elderly controls. This suggests that when sentences offer the possibility to use a more semantically-driven interpretation strategy (as is the case in the normal prose condition) an SPS effect is absent in these agrammatic comprehenders. This idea fits with our earlier findings (see Annual Report 1996). The presence of an SPS in syntactic prose indicates that not all knowledge about syntactic constraints is lost in these patients. Presumably, under the additional requirement of a semantic interpretation the syntactic processor breaks down (cf. Linebarger et al., 1983). For the subcategorization violations no significant effects were found either in the normal or syntactic prose condition. Testing of additional patients (agrammatic patients and patients with a right hemisphere lesion) is currently being carried out.

发布于11月17日 23:25 | 评论数(0) 阅读数(960) | 我的文章

Event-Related Brain Potentials (ERPs)

Event-Related Brain Potentials (ERPs)

The 100 billion or so neurons in the human brain communicate by generating small electro-chemical signals. If the probes from an instrument for measuring electrical energy (such as a voltmeter) are placed near such a brain cell it will register a voltage change whenever the neuron is active. Neurons can be active or generate potentials up to several hundred times per second. Although these electrical potentials are relatively small and cannot be monitored individually from a distance, because there are a lot of neurons and because neighboring neurons frequently are active close together in time, the behavior of the group can be measured with probes placed at some distance from the group -- in fact, since 1929 it has been known that groups of neurons can be monitored with probes (called electrodes) placed on the scalp, outside the brain!

The on-going electrical activity of the brain measured from scalp electrodes is called the electroencephalogram or EEG. The EEG is present from before birth until death. In fact, in some places death itself is defined by the absence of an EEG. The EEG is usually monitored using a device called a polygraph and is displayed as continuous changes in voltage over time. In a typical EEG session a number of electrodes are attached to the scalp of the subject -- either by glue or more commonly these days by wearing an elastic cap (electro-cap). The electrodes are then plugged into the polygraph and the EEG is displayed on a moving sheet of paper or on a computer screen. The EEG is used clinically to help diagnose brain disorders such as epilepsy and sleep disturbances. It gives relatively good information about the general mental state of the individual. Changes in state are associated with a change in the amplitude and frequency distribution of the EEG. For example, alpha waves are 7 to 12 Hz relatively large amplitude EEG waves that are associated with a relaxed but awake state, while beta waves are 13 to 20 Hz waves of lower amplitude than alpha, which are associated with a more alert or "active" mental state. Unfortunately, while the raw EEG can distinguish between such gross changes in state, it has not proven to be specific or sensitive enough to distinguish between more fine-grained changes in mental activity. For example, the EEG looks very much the same whether a person is reading, listening to music or watching TV. Therefore, raw EEG has been of limited use in studying moment-by-moment human cognitive activity.

Buried within the EEG is a signal which is more revealing about information processing in the brain. This signal can be obtained by time-locking the recording of the EEG to the onset of events such as a person reading a word on a computer screen, listening to a musical note played on an instrument, or viewing a picture in a magazine. The resulting activity is called an "event-related potential" (ERP), which can be readily distinguished from the raw or background EEG by its more consistent morphological structure (shape). Unfortunately, ERPs are of relatively small amplitude, measuring from less than 1 to as many as 10 microvolts (a microvolt is a millionth of a volt). This is in comparison to the background EEG which can be from 10 to 100 microvolts. As a result of this size disparity ERPs cannot be readily seen in a raw EEG tracing! One point to keep in mind is that the raw EEG is made up of all brain activity (visible at the scalp) at a particular point in time, while the ERP is that part of the activity associated with the processing of a specific event.

ERPs are usually obtained in a specialized laboratory consisting of a set of physiological amplifiers and one or two computers. The subject has a number of electrodes affixed to the scalp (electro-cap) which are in turn connected to the physiological amplifiers. The subject is then exposed to a number of stimulus events (e.g., words displayed on a computer monitor) while their EEG is recorded or digitized by a computer. To visualize ERPs the experimenter must use signal processing techniques to eliminate non-event activity. Typically this involves recording EEG activity time locked to multiple presentations of the same or similar events and then averaging these tracing together. The averaging process tends to decrease the influence of random activity (i.e., the background or non-event related EEG) while maintaining the consistent event-related activity. With enough repetitions (trials) the ERP emerges and the contribution of the background EEG subsides. The number of trials necessary to obtain an ERP depends on a number of factors, the most important being the "signal-to-noise ratio", that is, the relative size of the signal (the ERP) relative to the size of the noise (the background EEG). In cognitive experiments 30 to 50 stimulus presentations are typically required to obtain a good clean average ERP.

ERPs can be record from all of the primary sensory modalities (visual, auditory, somatosensory and gustatory) and from motor events (e.g., a button press). Morever, they can be recorded from multiple locations on the scalp. While there are formidable challenges to determining the location within the brain from which ERPs emanate, recording from multiple sites does afford some information on the locus of the underlying relevant brain systems.

By convention ERP researchers break down ERP waveforms into several basic parts or components. Components are the positive and negative-going fluctuations that can be seen in any ERP waveform. Viewed on different time scales one can see that the ERP is a rich source of temporal information. In general, the components that occur prior to 100 ms are thought to reflect information processing in the early sensory pathway. For example, the auditory brain stem ERP arises from neural impulses traveling from the cochlea through auditory brain stem centers, while the middle latency components seem to reflect activity in the thalamus and possibly the earliest cortical processing. Cognitive scientists have been most interested in the so-called long-latency ERP components: which include the P1, P2, N1, N2, N400 and P3 components. These components are named by there polarity (N for negative) and either their ordinal position after stimulus onset (P1 is the first positive peak), or their latency after stimulus onset (the N400 is a negative-going component peaking at 400 msec). In general, the long-latency components occurring prior to 200 msec are thought to reflect late sensory and early perceptual processes while those after 250 milliseconds or so are thought to reflect higher level cognitive processes (e.g., memory and language).

ERP researchers tend, for convenience sake, to identify the positive and negative fluctuations in the overall scalp ERP as the actual components themselves. This is, to some degree, misleading. Any given ERP waveform recorded at the scalp is actually the summation and cancellation of neural activity from a large number of neural generators from a number of different brain regions.

For a review of language sensitive ERPs see:

Osterhout & Holcomb

发布于11月17日 23:04 | 评论数(22) 阅读数(3817) | 我的文章

APA Research Style Crib Sheet 转载

APA Research Style Crib Sheet
by Russ Dewey
Georgia Southern University

[This page is a summary of rules for using APA style. The version you are reading was revised 10/10/96, edited and revised again on September 5, 2000 with Bill Scott of the College of Wooster, and updated in January 2003 by Doc Scribe. I have made every effort to keep this document accurate, but readers have occasionally pointed out errors and inconsistencies which required correction. I am grateful to them and invite additional feedback. This document may be reproduced freely if this paragraph is included. --Russ Dewey, rdewey@gasou.edu]

Download the APA Crib Sheet PDF and other APA style resources from Dr. Abel Scribe PhD.
See Professor Dewey's excellent Web site for Psychology Students.

APA Crib Sheet Contents

Introductory Information

Rules

Abbreviations
Avoiding biased and pejorative language
Capitalization
Commas
Hyphenation
Italics (underlining)
Miscellaneous
Numbers
Quotation marks

Page Formats

Title & text pages (graphic)
Headings
Text details
References & tables (graphic)
Tables (notes)

Reference Citations (In-Text)

Reference Formats

Abbreviating within a reference
Alphabetizing within reference lists
APA reference style & examples

Contents | Back to top
INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION

APA style is the style of writing used by journals published by the American Psychological Association (APA). The style is documented in the APA Publication Manual (5th ed., 2001). The APA Manual began as an article published in Psychological Bulletin in 1929. That article reported results of a 1928 meeting of representatives from anthropological and psychological journals, "to discuss the form of journal manuscripts and to write instructions for their preparation" (APA, 2001, p. xix). By 1952 the guidelines were issued as a separate document called the Publication Manual. Today the manual is in its fifth edition, and the APA format described in it is a widely recognized standard for scientific writing in psychology and education.

Some of the more commonly used rules and reference formats from the manual are listed here. However, this web page is no substitute for the 440 page APA Manual itself, which should be purchased by any serious psychology student in the U.S., or by students in other countries who are writing for a journal which uses APA format. The APA Manual can be found in almost any college bookstore, as well as in many large, general-purpose bookstores, in the reference and style guide section. You may check the current price and delivery of the APA Manual by clicking on this link to amazon.com. The spiral bound edition is especially handy when formatting research papers.

The APA Manual draws a distinction between "final manuscripts" such as class papers, theses, and dissertations, and "copy manuscripts" to be submitted for review and publication. The APA Crib Sheet follows the instructions given in chapter six for "Material Other Than Journal Articles" (APA, 2001, pp. 321-330). Final manuscripts differ from copy manuscripts in these ways:

Spacing. "Double-spacing is required throughout most of the manuscript. When single-spacing would improve readability, however, it is usually encouraged. Single spacing can be used for table titles and headings, figure captions, references (but double-spacing is required between references), footnotes, and long quotations" (APA, 2001, p. 326).
Figures, tables, and footnotes. "In a manuscript submitted for publication, figures, tables, and footnotes are placed at the end of the manuscript; in theses and dissertations, such material is frequently incorporated at the appropriate point in text as a convenience to readers" (APA, 2001, p. 325).

The most notable additions and changes to fifth edition of the APA Manual (2001) include:

Electronic sources require new formats in references. The formats previously featured on the APA Web site have been superseded. Several formats are included in the Crib Sheet.
Italics or underline? "Use the functions of your word-processing program to create italic, bold, or other special fonts or styles following the style guidelines specified in this Publication Manual" (APA, 2001, p. 286). However, underlining in place of italics is still acceptable when using a typewriter (see APA, 2001, p. 100). Always be consistent!
Hanging indents. "APA publishes references in a hanging indent format. . . . If a hanging indent is difficult to accomplish with your word-processing program, it is permissible to indent your references with paragraph indents" (APA, 2001, p. 299).

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RULES

Following is a summary of rules and reference examples in the APA style manual. The manual itself contains all this information and more, organized and worded differently, indexed and illustrated. If in doubt about a specific rule or example, consult the manual itself.

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Abbreviations

Avoid abbreviations (acronyms) except for long, familiar terms (MMPI).
Explain what an abbreviation means the first time it occurs: American Psychological Association (APA).
If an abbreviation is commonly used as a word, it does not require explanation (IQ, LSD, REM, ESP).
Do not use the old abbreviations for subject, experimenter, and observer (S, E, O).
The following abbreviations should NOT be used outside parenthetical comments:
- cf. [use compare]
- e.g. [use for example]
- etc. [use and so forth]
- i.e. [use that is]
- viz. [use namely]
- vs. [use versus]
Use periods when making an abbreviation within a reference (Vol. 3, p. 6, 2nd ed.)
Do not use periods within degree titles and organization titles (PhD, APA).
Do not use periods within measurements (lb, ft, s) except inches (in.).
Use s for second, m for meter.
To form plurals of abbreviations, add s alone, without apostrophe (PhDs, IQs, vols., Eds).
In using standard abbreviations for measurements, like m for meter, do not add an s to make it plural (100 seconds is 100 s); when referring to several pages in a reference or citation, use the abbreviation pp. (with a period after it and a space after the period).
Do not use the abbreviation "pp." for magazine or journal citations; just give the numbers themselves. Do use "pp." for citations of encyclopedia entries, multi-page newspaper articles, chapters or articles in edited books.
Use two-letter postal codes for U.S. state names (GA).

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Avoiding Biased and Pejorative Language

In general, avoid anything that causes offense. The style manual makes the following suggestions:

DO NOT use . . .	when you can use . . .
ethnic labels (for example, Hispanic)	geographical labels (Mexican Americans)
"men" (referring to all adults)	"men and women"
"homosexuals"	"gay men and lesbians"
"depressives"	"people with depression"

Correct use of the terms "gender" and "sex"

The term "gender" refers to culture and should be used when referring to men and women as social groups, as in this example from the Publication Manual: "sexual orientation rather than gender accounted for most of the variance in the results; most gay men and lesbians were for it, most heterosexual men and women were against it" (APA, 2001, p. 63).

The term "sex" refers to biology and should be used when biological distinctions are emphasized, for example, "sex differences in hormone production."

Avoid gender stereotypes. For example, the manual suggests replacing "An American boy's infatuation with football" with "An American child's infatuation with football" (see APA, 2001, p. 66).

Sensitivity to labels

Be sensitive to labels. A person in a clinical study should be called a "patient," not a "case." Avoid equating people with their conditions, for example, do not say "schizophrenics," say "people diagnosed with schizophrenia." Use the term "sexual orientation," not "sexual preference." The phrase "gay men and lesbians" is currently preferred to the term "homosexuals." To refer to all people who are not heterosexual, the manual suggests "lesbians, gay men, and bisexual women and men" (APA, 2001, p. 67).

In racial references, the manual simply recommends that we respect current usage. Currently both the terms "Black" and "African American" are widely accepted, while "Negro" and "Afro-American" are not. These things change, so use common sense.

Capitalize Black and White when the words are used as proper nouns to refer to social groups. Do not use color words for other ethnic groups. The manual specifies that hyphens should not be used in multiword names such as Asian American or African American.

Labels can be tricky, and the manual has a lot to say about them. For example, "American Indian" and "Native American" are both acceptable usages, but the manual notes that there are nearly 450 Native American groups, including Hawaiians and Samoans, so specific group names are far more informative.

The terms Hispanic, Latino, and Chicano are preferred by different groups. The safest procedure is use geographical references. Just say "Cuban American" if referring to people from Cuba.

The term Asian American is preferable to Oriental, and again the manual recommends being specific about country of origin, when this is known (for example, Chinese or Vietnamese). People from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland often (but not always!) prefer Inuk (singular) and Inuit (plural) to "Eskimo." But some Alaska natives are non-Inuit people who prefer to be called Eskimo. This type of difficulty is avoided by using geographical references. For example, in place of "Eskimo" or "Inuit" one could use "people from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland."

In general, call people what they want to be called, and do not contrast one group of people with another group called "normal" people. Write "we compared people with autism to people without autism" not "we contrasted autistics to normals." Do not use pejorative terms like "stroke victim" or "stroke sufferers." Use a more neutral terminology such as "people who have had a stroke." Avoid the terms "challenged" and "special" unless the population referred to prefers this terminology (for example, Special Olympics). As a rule, use the phrase "people with _______" (for example, "people with AIDS," not "AIDS sufferers").

In referring to age, be specific about age ranges; avoid open-ended definitions like "under 16" or "over 65." Avoid the term elderly. Older person is preferred. Boy and Girl are acceptable referring to high school and and younger. For persons 18 and older use men and women.

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Capitalization

Capitalize formal names of tests (Stroop Color-Word Interference Test).
Capitalize major words and all other words of four letters or more, in headings, titles, and subtitles outside reference lists, for example, "A Study of No-Win Strategies."
Capitalize names of conditions, groups, effects, and variables only when definite and specific. (Group A was the control group; an Age x Weight interaction showed lower weight with age.)
Capitalize the first word after a comma or colon if, and only if, it begins a complete sentence. For example, "This is a complete sentence, so it is capitalized." As a counter example, "no capitalization here."
Capitalize specific course and department titles (GSU Department of Psychology, Psych 150).
Do not capitalize generic names of tests (Stroop color test). "Stroop" is a name, so it remains capitalized.
Capitalize nouns before numbers, but not before variables (Trial 2, trial x).
Do not capitalize names of laws, theories, and hypotheses (the law of effect).
Do not capitalize when referring to generalities (any department, any introductory course).

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Commas

Do not use commas to separate parts of measurement (9 lbs 5 oz). Use the metric system, as a rule.
Use commas before "and" in lists, for example, height, width, and depth.
Use commas between groups of three digits, for example, 1,453.
Use commas to set off a reference in a parenthetical comment (Patrick, 1993).
Use commas for seriation within a paragraph or sentence. For example, "three choices are (a) true, (b) false, and (c) don't know." Use semicolons for seriation if there are commas within the items. For example, (a) here, in the middle of the item, there are commas; (b) here there are not; (c) so we use semicolons throughout.
Use commas in exact dates, for example, April 18, 1992 (but not in April 1992).

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Hyphenation

Do not hyphenate -ly and superlative words (widely used test, best informed students).
Do not hyphenate common prefixes (posttest, prewar, multiphase, nonsignificant) unless needed for clarity (pre-existing).
Do not hyphenate foreign, letter, numeral terms (a priori hypothesis, Type A behavior) when the meaning is clear without it (least squares solution, heart rate scores).
Do not hyphenate if a noun comes first (a therapy was client centered, results of t tests).
Hyphenate adjectival phrases (role-playing technique, high-anxiety group, two-way analysis).
Hyphenate compound adjectives preceding nouns (client-centered therapy, t-test scores) unless the compound adjective involves a superlative (best written paper).
Hyphenate if the base is an abbreviation or compounded (pre-UCS, non-college bound).
Hyphenate if the base word is capitalized or a number (pre-Freudian, post-1960).
Hyphenate if the words could be misunderstood without a hyphen (re-pair, un-ionized, co-worker).
If in doubt, consult a recently published dictionary. Standards change. For example, "data base" is now "database," and "life-style" is now "lifestyle."

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Italics (Underlining)

Do not italicize or underline common foreign abbreviations (vice versa, et al., a priori).
Do not italicize or underline for mere emphasis.
Italicize or underline the titles of books and articles, species names, introduction of new terms and labels (the first time only), words and phrases used as linguistic examples, letters used as statistical symbols, and volume numbers in reference lists.

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Miscellaneous: Colons, dashes, parentheses, numbering paragraphs

Do not use "and/or." Write things out. For example, "Monday, Tuesday, or both" is preferable to "Monday and/or Tuesday."
Do not use a colon or other punctuation after an introduction which is not a complete sentence such as
this one, or any other sentence in the body of text which flows into an extended quote. The quote "picks up where the sentence leaves off" and provides the punctuation.
Use a dash (rendered on typewriters and some word processors as a double hyphen) when there is a sudden interruption like this one--zoiks!--in the flow of a sentence. Overuse "weakens the flow of the writing" (APA, 2001, p. 81).
Use parentheses to introduce an abbreviation, for example, the galvanic skin response (GSR).
Use appendixes (appendices) as the plural of appendix. Use datum as singular, data as plural. Use matrix as singular, matrices as plural. Phenomenon is the singular form of the plural phenomena. Use schema as singular, schemas (not schemata) as plural.
When listing separate paragraphs in a series, use a number and a period, not parentheses.
1. The first paragraph goes here.
2. The second paragraph goes here.

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Numbers

Spell out common fractions and common expressions (one-half, Fourth of July).
Spell out large numbers beginning sentences (Thirty days hath September . . .).
Spell out numbers which are inexact, or below 10 and not grouped with numbers over 10 (one-tailed t test, eight items, nine pages, three-way interaction, five trials).
Use numerals for numbers 10 and above, or lower numbers grouped with numbers 10 and above (for example, from 6 to 12 hours of sleep).
To make plurals out of numbers, add s only, with no apostrophe (the 1950s).
Treat ordinal numbers like cardinal numbers (the first item of the 75th trial . . .).
Use combinations of written and Arabic numerals for back-to-back modifiers (five 4-point scales).
Use combinations of numerals and written numbers for large sums (over 3 million people).
Use numerals for exact statistical references, scores, sample sizes, and sums (multiplied by 3, or 5% of the sample). Here is another example: "We used 30 subjects, all two year olds, and they spent an average of 1 hr 20 min per day crying.
Use metric abbreviations with figures (4 km) but not when written out (many meters distant).
Use the percent symbol (%) only with figures (5%) not with written numbers (five percent).

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Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks for an odd or ironic usage the first time but not thereafter, for example, "This is the "good-outcome" variable, but as it turns out, the good-outcome variable predicts trouble later on . . ."
Use quotation marks for article and chapter titles cited in the text but not in the reference list. (In Smith's (1992) article, "APA Style and Personal Computers," computers were described as "here to stay" (p. 311).)

Extended quotations

Add emphasis in a quotation with italics, immediately followed by the words [italics added] in brackets.
Brackets are not necessary when changing the first letter of a quotation to upper case.
For quotations over 40 words in length, indent and single space the whole block (double space in papers for review or publication). Indent five more spaces (one-half inch, 1.25 cm) if there are paragraphs within the long quotation after the first. Always provide author, year, and page citation.
Expand or clarify words or meanings in a quotation by placing the added material in quotes. For example, "They [the Irish Republican Army] initiated a cease-fire."
Reproduce a quote exactly. If there are errors, introduce the word sic italicized and bracketed--for exammple [sic]--immediately after the error to indicate it was part of the original source.
Use three dots with a space before, between, and after each (ellipsis points) when omitting material, four if the omitted material includes the end of a sentence (with no space before the first). Do not use dots at the beginning or end of a quotation unless it is important to indicate the quotation begins or ends in midsentence.

Do NOT use quotes to . . .

. . . cite a linguistic example; instead, underline or italicize the term (the verb gather).
. . . hedge, cast doubt, or apologize (he was "cured"). Leave off the quotes.
. . . identify endpoints on a scale; underline or italicize instead (poor to excellent).
. . . introduce a key term (the neoquasipsychoanalytic theory).

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PAGE FORMATS

The APA Manual notes that "the size of the type should be one of the standard typewriter sizes (pica or elite) or, if produced from a word processing program, 12 points" (2001, p. 285). The body of the paper should be in a serif typeface (like Courier or Times Roman) with lettering on figures in a sans serif typeface (such as Helvetica or Arial).

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Headings

APA headings follow a complex hierarchy, with provision for up to five levels. These come, in descending order, as levels 5, 1, 2, 3, 4. But, if one, two, or three levels of headings are required in a paper, use levels 1, 3, and 4, in that order. If four levels are required, interleave level 2 between levels 1 and 3. If five levels are required, start with level five and work down the remaining hierarchy in order (5, 1, 2, 3, 4). Confused? Most papers will need no more than three levels. To avoid confusion these are labeled A, B, and C below (APA levels 1, 3, and 4 respectively) (see APA, 2001, pp. 114?15).

Level A Headings are Centered and Set in Heading Caps

Level B: Flush with Left Margin, Italicized, Set in Heading Caps

Level C headings: Indented, italicized, sentence caps, end with a period. These headings are sometimes referred to as paragraph or run-in headings. Although they end with a period (or other punctuation) they need not be complete sentences or grammatically correct.

Use headings in the order presented. If you need just two levels, use Level A and Level B headings. Level A and B headings do not end with punctuation except to add emphasis with an exclamation point or question mark. Do not begin a paper with the heading Introduction. It is understood that all papers begin with an introduction.

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Text details

Abstracts are limited to 120 words (APA, 2001, p. 13).
Double space the text, but single space within block quotes, references, and the abstract.
Footnotes are rarely used in APA papers, except for author affiliation and contact information--the author note.
Hyphenation should not occur at the end of lines, only between words when necessary.
Indent paragraphs, block quotes, and hanging indents one-half inch (1.25 cm or five to seven spaces).
Justification should be set to "off" or "left margin only" (the right margin should be uneven, a ragged right margin).
Keyword emphasis requires the use of italics, but only the first time a term is used. If the intent is to indicate odd or ironic usage, use quotation marks.
Margins should be at least 1" all around (about 2.5 cm).
Page numbers are required on every page: Number pages consecutively.
The page header summarizes the title in a few words. The header and page number go inside the margin space, double spaced above the text, next to the right margin.
Word processor features--such as bold and italic fonts and hanging indents--should be used as appropriate.

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References and tables

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Table notes

Number tables consecutively as they appear in your text. Use only whole numbers, no 5a, 5b, etc. See recent issues of the American Psychologist or other APA journals for more complex table layouts. "Tables are efficient, enabling the researcher to present a large amount of data in a small amount of space" (APA, 2001, p. 147).

Place tables close to where they are first mentioned in your text, but do not split a table across pages. (Tables in papers submitted for review or publication are placed on separate pages at the end of the paper.)
Label each table beginning with the table number followed by a description of the contents.
Horizontal rules (lines) should be typed into tables; do not draw them in by hand.
Each row and column must have a heading. Abbreviations and symbols (e.g., "%" or "nos.") may be used.
Do not change the number of decimal places within a column.
Do not change the units of measurement within a column.
"Use a zero before the decimal point when numbers are less than one" (APA, 2001, p. 128). Write "0.23" not ".23" unless the number is a statistic that cannot be larger than one, for example a correlation r = .55, or a probability p < .01.
Add notes to explain the table contents. These may be general notes or footnotes. The latter are labeled "a, b, c, etc."
Use asterisks to indicate statistical significance explained in the probability level note at the bottom of the table. "Assign a given alpha level the same number of asterisks from table to table within your paper, such as *p < .05 and **p < .01; the largest probability receives the fewest asterisks [the smaller probability get more asterisks]" (APA, 2001, p. 170).
You may both single space and double space within a table to achieve clarity. Tables in papers submitted for review or publication (only!) must be double spaced throughout.

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REFERENCE CITATIONS (IN-TEXT)

Use the author-date format to cite references in text. For example: as Smith (1990) points out, a recent study (Smith, 1990) shows. . . . Every source cited in your text--and only those sources cited in your text--are referenced in the reference list.

For two-author citations, spell out both authors on all occurrences.
For multiple-author citations (up to five authors) name all authors the first time, then use et al., so the first time it is Smith, Jones, Pearson and Sherwin (1990), but the second time it is Smith et al., with a period after "al" but no underlining.
The first time an "et al." reference is used in a paragraph, give the year, thereafter (if the citation is repeated in the paragraph) omit the year.
For six or more authors, use et al. the first time and give the full citation in references.
Include a page reference after the year, outside quotes. For example: The author stated, "The effect disappeared within minutes" (Lopez, 1993, p. 311), but she did not say which effect; Lopez found that "the effect disappeared within minutes" (p. 311). The sentence quoted is capitalized only if it follows a comma, and is a complete sentence not merged into the flow of the text.
If two or more multiple-author references which shorten to the same "et al." form, making it ambiguous, give as many author names as necessary to make them distinct, before et al. For example: (Smith, Jones, et al., 1991) to distinguish it from (Smith, Burke, et al., 1991).
Join names in a multiple-author citation with and (in text) or an ampersand (&) in reference lists and parenthetical comments. For example: As Smith and Sarason (1990) point out, the same argument was made by in an earlier study (Smith & Sarason, 1990).
If a group is readily identified by its initials, spell it out only the first time. For example, "As reported in a government study (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1991), blah blah . . . " and thereafter, "The previously cited study (NIMH, 1991) found that . . .
If the author is unknown or unspecified, use the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title), for example: ("Study Finds," 1992).
If citing multiple works by the same author at the same time, arrange dates in order. In general, use letters after years to distinguish multiple publications by the same author in the same year. For example: Several studies (Johnson, 1988, 1990a, 1990b, 1995 in press-a, 1995 in press-b) showed the same thing.
For old works cite the translation or the original and modern copyright dates if both are known, for example: (Aristotle, trans. 1931) or (James, 1890/1983).
Always give page numbers for quotations, for example: (Cheek & Buss, 1981, p. 332) or (Shimamura, 1989, chap. 3, p. 5).
For e-mail and other "unrecoverable data" use personal communication, for example: (V.-G. Nguyen, personal communication, September 28, 1993). These do not appear in the reference list.
For quoting electronic documents without page numbers, cite paragraph numbers if given, indicated by the paragraph symbol or the abbreviation para. in the citation (e.g., Smith, 2000, ¶ 17). If there are no paragraph numbers, cite the nearest preceding section heading and count paragraphs from there (e.g., Smith, 2000, Method section, para. 4).

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REFERENCE FORMATS

Your text and the reference list must agree. "References cited in text must appear in the reference list; conversely, each entry in the reference list must be cited in text" (APA, 2001, p. 215). See the section on Reference citations for citing references in text.

Abbreviating within a reference

Here are approved abbreviations for use in a reference list:

chap. for chapter
ed. for edition
rev. ed. for revised edition
2nd ed. for second edition
Ed. for Edited by
(Eds.) for multiple editors
Trans. for Translated by
p. for page number, with a space after the period

pp. for page numbers (plural)
Vol. for a specific Volume
vols. for a work with xx volumes
No. for Number
Pt. for Part
Suppl. for Supplement,
Tech. Rep. for Technical Report

Use the abbreviation "pp." for page numbers in encyclopedia entries, multi-page newspaper articles, chapters or articles in edited books, but not in journal or magazine article citations, where numbers alone should be used (see examples of reference formats).

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Alphabetizing within reference lists

Use prefixes in alphabetizing names if commonly part of the surname (De Vries).
Do not use von in alphabetizing (Helmholtz, H. L. F. von), or Jr., III, or Sr.
Treat Mc and Mac literally; Mac comes before Mc.
Disregard apostrophes, spaces, and capitals in alphabetizing; D'Arcy comes after Daagwood, Decker comes after de Chardin.
Single-author citations precede multiple-author citations of the same year (Zev, 1990 then Zev et al., 1990).
Alphabetize corporate authors by first significant word. Do not use abbreviations in corporate names.

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APA reference style

The APA Publication Manual now instructs authors to use hanging indents for references, and to use italics for titles. The hanging indent is one-half inch (1.25 cm), just like paragraph indents. All titles in references are set in sentence caps, but titles quoted in the text are set in heading caps. No quotation marks are used around titles of articles in references, but quotes are used when citing article titles in the text. The APA Publication Manual (2001) contains 95 examples of different reference types (pp. 240-281). Here are a few examples of the most commonly used formats.

Anonymous or unknown author (common in newspapers):

Caffeine linked to mental illness. (1991, July 13). New York Times, pp. B13, B15.

Citation: ("Caffeine Linked," 1991). Use heading caps when citing titles in text citations.

Books (Group author, 3? authors, reprint/translation, edition other than first):

American Psychiatric Association. (1990). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.).: Washington, DC: Author.

Citation: (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1990); next citation (APA, 1990). Note: "Author" is used as above when author and publisher are identical.

Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., & Williams, J. M. (1995). The craft of research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Citation: (Booth, Colomb, & Williams, 1995); next citation (Booth et al., 1995).

Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory (H. A. Rueger & C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). New York: Teachers College. (Original: work published 1885)

Citation: (Ebbinghaus, 1885/1913).

Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Citation: (Strunk & White, 1979).

Chapter or section in a book (online & print):

Beers, M. H., & Berkow, R. (1999). Mood disorders. In The Merck manual of diagnosis and therapy (17th ed.,: sec. 15, chap. 189). Retrieved January 17, 2003, from http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/section15/
chapter189/189a.htm

Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social: psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 599?58). New York: Random House.

Citations: (Beers & Berkow, 1999, chap. 189); (Stephan, 1985). Note: Break a URL to wrap a line only after a slash or before a period. Do not add a hyphen or any other punctuation.

Conference paper (unpublished):

Shrout, P. E. (Chair), Hunter, J. E., Harris, R. J., Wilkinson, L., Strouss, M. E., Applebaum, M. I., et al.: (1996, August). Significance tests骃hould they be banned from APA journals? Symposium conducted
at the 104th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.

Citation: (Shrout et al., 1996). APA references list up to the first six authors to a work. If there are more add et al. (and others) to the list of names. In text citations give just the lead author, et al. Published papers are referenced as a chapter in a book.

Government report online accessed through GPO database:

Citation: (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2002); next citation (NIMH, 2002). Journal articles (Print, electronic copy, changed source, online journal, paged by issue): Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. (2002). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in major depressive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 287, 1807?814. Citation: (Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group, 2002). The APA Manual requires citing the full name of a corporate author like this; the acronym would not be easily recognized. However, shortening the author to "Hypericum Depression Trial" in subsequent citations would probably be acceptable to editors of APA journals. Journal article, electronic facsimile: Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. (2002). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in major depressive disorder: A randomized controlled trial [Electronic version]. JAMA, 287, 1807?814. Many documents are now available online as exact facsimile copies of the print original (usually in Adobe's PDF format). References to these facsimiles just add the note [Electronic version] to the reference. If the document is not an exact copy of a print version--"(e.g., the format differs from the print version or page numbers are not indicated)"--add the date you retrieved the document and the URL to the reference (APA, 2001, p. 271). Journal article, changed/doubtful source: Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. (2002). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in major depressive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 287, 1807?814. Retrieved July 7, 2002, from http://www.jama.org/articles.html Journal article, retrieved from a database: Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. (2002). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in major depressive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 287, 1807?814. Retrieved July 7, 2002, from MEDSYS database. Online only journal (paged by issue): Kortepeter, M. G., & Parker, G. W. (1999). Potential biological weapons threats. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 5(4). Retrieved January 20, 2003, from http://www.cdc.gov/ ncidod/EID/vol5no4/kortepeter.htm Citation: (Kortepeter & Parker, 1999). There is no period after the URL in a reference. Note: When directly quoting or citing a document, a page number or other means of identifying a specific passage is required. In the absence of page numbers, if paragraph numbers appear in an electronic document, add the paragraph symbol or the abbreviation para. and the paragraph number to the citation (e.g., Kortepeter & Parker, 1999, ¶ 17). If there is no paragraph number, cite the nearest preceding section heading and count paragraphs from there (e.g., Kortepeter & Parker, 1999, Method section, para. 4). Note: Occasionally a research journal may be paged by issue, that is, page numbering in each issue begins at page one. Add the number in the volume (in parentheses in plain text) to these references immediately after the volume number, as in the example above. Letter to the editor:
O'Neill, G. W. (1992, January). In support of DSM-III [Letter to the editor]. APA Monitor, 4-5. Magazine article: Gardner, H. (1991, December). Do babies sing a universal song? Psychology Today, 70-76. Newsletter/newspaper articles: Brown, L. S. (1993, Spring). My research with orangs. The Psychology Department Newsletter, 3, 2. Goleman, D. (1991, October 24). Battle of insurers vs. therapists: Cost control pitted against proper care. New York Times, pp. D1, D9. Markoff, J. (1996, June 5). Voluntary rules proposed to help insure privacy for Internet users. New York Times. Retrieved April 1, 1996, from http://www.nytimes.com/library/cyber/week/yo5dat.html The date is given as it appears on the publication. For anonymous newspaper articles, see the previous section on "Anonymous or unknown authors." Pamphlet: Just Say No Foundation. (1992). Saving our youth. (9th ed.) [Brochure]. Washington, DC: Author. Web page: Dewey, R. A. (2002). Psych Web by Russ Dewey. Retrieved January 25, 2003 from http://www .psywww.com/

http://www.wooster.edu/psychology/apa-crib.html#Intext

http://www.apastyle.org

or see

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如何在Biblioscape中输入中文文献。

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Enter Chinese Characters under Windows XP - March 18, 2002

Biblioscape supports double byte languages including Chinese, Japanese, and Korean (CJK). If you have Windows 2000 or XP, you don't need to download any third party software. If you are are running other versions of Windows, you can download a CJK enabling software like NJStar, TwinBridge, Union Way, etc. The following tutorial shows you how to enter Chinese into Biblioscape under Windows XP. You need Windows XP installation CD to complete the following steps.

1. First, you need to add Chinese to the language settings of your system. Go to Windows status bar and click "Start | Settings | Control Panel". Double click the icon "Regional and Language".

2. On the "Languages" tab, check the box before "Install files for East Asian Languages" under section "Supplemental language support".

3. Click the "Detail" button to select the "Default input language".

4. On the "Advanced" tab, Select "Chinese (PRC)" as the language to match the language version of the non-Unicode programs you want to use. This is a very important step. Without this step, Biblioscape can't display Chinese correctly. After clicking the OK button, Windows will prompt you to insert your Windows 2000 installation CD. Insert the CD-ROM and click OK button.

5. After Windows copied some files into your local drive, you will be prompted the following Window. Click the "Yes" button. You can then be prompted to restart Windows. Click Yes button to restart Windows.

6. After Windows is restarted, an language input icon will be displayed on your Windows status bar.

Move the cursor on top of "EN" icon, click the right mouse button, then click the "Properties" button.

7. On the "Input Locales" tab, select "CH Chinese (PRC) Chinese (Simplifies) - US Keyboard" entry, then click on the "Properties" button.

8. On the "Input Locale Properties" window, select the input method you prefer. If you know PinYin, you can choose "Chinese (Simplified) - MS-PinYin98" and click OK button.

9. After you come back to the "Regional Options" window, the Chinese input icon will be changed to MS-PinYin98. If you want, you can set this input method as the default by clicking on the "Set as Default" button. Click OK button to close this window.

10. Start Biblioscape. If you did not set Chinese input as the default input method, click on the EN icon on the Window's status bar and change it to MS-PinYin input method.

11. You can now enter Chinese into Biblioscape.

12. Chinese records will also be displayed correctly in the reference list. You can also do search. When formatting papers with Chinese records, don't forget to go to "Tools | Options". On "Format Manuscript" tab, check box "Format double byte languages (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, etc.)".

Enter author names and keywords in Chinese, Japanese, Korean

In Biblioscape Authors and Keywords fields, each author or keyword is separated from others by "; ". For example: Smith, J. L.; Bowen, J. P.; Collins, F. While entering data in double byte languages like Chinese, Japanese, Korean (CJK), there are two semicolon letters. Biblioscape can only recognize the English semicolon. So before entering the "; ", you have to switch the input language. This can be done with one key press. For example, if you use MS PingYing to enter Chinese, once finished inputting the first author name, press and release the "Shift" key to go to English mode. Enter "; ". Press and release the "Shift" key again to go back to Chinese input mode and start enter the second author name. If author names are not separated by English semicolon, the formatted author names generated by Biblioscape will be in the wrong format.

While entering author name in CJK, you should enter it in native format. Enter last name first followed by first name. Do not put a comma after the last name as you do with English name.

Biblioscape 6

Switching to another language in Biblioscape 6 is very easy. Just go to the "Tools | Options" window. On the "Format Manuscript" tab, find the section "International users". Choose the desired language and the font for the selected language.

Biblioscape 5, 4, 3

Note: To display Chinese correctly in the formatted preview window, you need to edit the file "...\Biblioscape 4\Global\preview_rtf_header.txt". Here is the content of that file:

{\rtf1\ansi\deff0\deftab720{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil MS Sans Serif;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset2 Symbol;}{\f2\fswiss\fprq2 System;}{\f3\fnil Times New Roman;}}
{\colortbl\red0\green0\blue0;}
\deflang1033\pard\plain\f3\fs20

You need to change the f3 definition to the Chinese character set. For example: from {\f3\fnil Times New Roman;} to {\f3\fnil\fcharset134 SimSun;}

Note: FYI: The above example was used to change to Simplified Chinese, if any one wants to change to Traditional Chinese, please change it to: {\f3\fnil\fcharset132 mingliu;}. For other languages, please refer to the following charset table.

charset : language
0 ANSI (Latin languages)
1 Default
2 Symbol
3 Invalid
77 Mac
128 Shift Jis (Japanese)
129 Hangul (Korean)
130 Johab (Korean)
132 (Traditional Chinese)
134 GB2312 (Simplified Chinese)
136 Big5 (Traditional Chinese)
161 Greek
162 Turkish
163 Vietnamese
177 Hebrew
178 Arabic
179 Arabic Traditional
180 Arabic user
181 Hebrew user
186 Baltic
204 Russian
222 Thai
238 Eastern European
254 PC 437
255 OEM

Contribution from Sean Lai at Biblioscape forum.

http://www.biblioscape.com/tips/tip_020318.htm

发布于11月16日 15:21 | 评论数(0) 阅读数(1678) | 我的文章

The Synthesizing of Knowledge: An Imperative in a Global Society 转载

The Synthesizing of Knowledge: An Imperative in a Global Society
知识综合——在全球化社会中的一个必然趋势
Howard Gardner在2005年11月会议上将要发表演讲的摘要

我将参加11月在意大利举行一个重要的教育会议，刚刚收到会议发来的Gardner博士主题演讲的摘要，译在下面供大家参考，因为我认为Gardner博士至少是当代杰出的教育思想家。

知识综合——在全球化社会中的一个必然趋势
Howard Gardner

不止一个权威人士，像诺贝尔奖金获得者Murray Gell-Mann, 已经提出：在21世纪最重要的智力是能够综合知识的智力。新的知识爆炸式地在增长，通过信息技术又很容易去获得它，因而如果能够对大量的信息进行筛查，并把它们组合服务于特定的目的，或是服务于广大的民众，这样的个人（或是机构，或是电脑程序）将是宝贵的。令人惊奇的是，尽管

在远古时代(Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas)和对未来知识综合如此重要，但是很少有对这种认知能力进行过系统地研究。在我的讲演里，我将阐述不同类型的知识综合，它们如何能够达到，什么样的认知能力和认识论的结构有助于这种综合，不适当的和误导性的综合会导致的危险和伤害。报告中将提出建议：如何更好的教授这种综合能力，以及个人如何继续发展这种能力。

稽古轩主按：转载韦钰院士的Blog http://blog.handsbrain.com/weiyu/archive/2005/01/21/1718.aspx
Gardner博士的观点非常有价值，我现在常常花大量时间搜索文献，觉得这个可以做，很好，那个也很好，阅读一个文献，往往在阅读后开始搜索相关的文献，这相关的文献，又有相关的，简直无穷无尽。看来这条消息，我深刻认识到必须改进阅读学习文献的方法。虽然以前也认识到这一点。

Globalisation and Learning

H.E. Msgr. Marcelo Sánchez Sorondo
Chancellor of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences
Casina Pio IV
V-00120 Vatican City
Tel: 39 0669881441
Fax: 39 0669885218
E-mail: vati332@acdscience.va

Website: http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdscien/index_social_en.htm

Keywords: globalisation, education, justice, ethics, synthesize knowledge.

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The phenomenon of globalisation
For a globalisation which includes redistribution
Justice is the way to peace and social good
Concentrating on education is the first task of a global world
The rehabilitation of ethics
Man's knowledge in the condition of science
References

The phenomenon of globalisation

The human family has acquired a new awareness of its unity, integration and global interdependence. Globalisation is the defining characteristic of our time (Khor, 2000). Time and space are shrinking and many borders are disappearing, giving rise to an increasing interdependence between climates, environments, ecosystems, lives, economies, well-being (freedom from disease), cultures, religions and people.This ‘New World Order’, which emerged fully after 1989 with the collapse of European communism, is a dynamic and dialectic process whose characteristics have not been identified completely but one which has brought with it a belief in: ecological emergency; lower trade barriers; an end to exchange controls; a freer movement of investment capital, goods and people; new forms of labour; and the displacement of public sector capital by the private sector. This latest historical stage has created new possibilities and opportunities, and raised new hopes for the world, especially for developing countries. In fact, technological innovations (especially information technology, telematics, the global satellite network and the Internet), the new forms of labour, expanding trade and increased direct foreign investment offer enormous potential for the elimination of poverty, hunger, disease and illiteracy during the millennium that has just started (UNDP, 1999).Nevertheless, many of these potential benefits have not been realised so far for everyone and for the common good. Globalisation has been driven by the expansion of markets and financial systems not necessarily linked to production, leading to increasing levels of inequality in labour, income, resources, opportunities and especially in education. According to the latest ‘Human Development Report’, (UNDP, 2003) globalisation in this phase has benefited only one fifth of the world’s population while marginalising the rest. Therefore, we cannot but agree with what the United Nations Millennium Declaration says: “We believe that the central challenge we face today is to ensure that globalisation becomes a positive force for the entire world’s people”. This is all the more evident after the atrocious terrorist act of 11 September 2001 and its direct consequences.

For a globalisation which includes redistribution

In a certain sense, it seems that the world is now going through an experimental, dynamic but chaotic stage. The collapse of Eastern European Communism brought about the triumph of capitalism, but the latter is also a sick system. Today we can criticise capitalism from within without necessarily being accused of being Philo-Communists. A market economy is the only system capable of producing enormous wealth. At the same time, however, it is the market economy itself that is responsible for causing massive levels of inequality and injustice, not least at a global level. Thus, a system combining both market laws and state intervention is needed. A free market presupposes non-intervention; justice, on the other hand, requires intervention. At the international level the issue that arises is how to govern globalisation. Or rather, in other words, according to the abovementioned ‘Millennium Declaration’, what can be done to extend the benefits of globalisation to everyone or, at the very least, to the majority of people: globalisation for all, a model for all. We are aware that there is more than one way to try to achieve this. Indeed, we suspect that it will be difficult for the developing world to embark on a journey based on the US model, but the same can be said for Europe. What must be done is to achieve at the international level a form of redistribution such as the one that states implement even if badly within their borders. There is no international body today that manages this redistribution. If redistribution within each state is difficult, it is all the more so at the international level where the problem has not even been properly taken into consideration. The seventies were all about development and developmentalism, and institutions were set up for this reason, such as the World Bank (1944) and the Inter-American Development Bank (1959), but no one since has focused on international redistribution, that is, on doing justice in a world which is ever more globalised.

Aware of the progressive disparity and inequality, in order to eradicate extreme poverty, hunger and illiteracy in the world, the rich nations have committed themselves to providing forms of aid which, although sporadic and relative, are a way to begin doing justice which we hope will increase and become more and more adequate. This commitment indicates a change, albeit an insufficient one. Between 1990 and 2001 official development aid went down from 0.33 percent to 0.22 percent of the GDP of the donor countries. On a positive note, however, last year the prolonged decline in official aid flows finally ended, reaching 57,000 million dollars (against 52,300 million in 2001). During the Conference on Financing for Development held in Monterrey in 2002, both the rich and the poor countries committed themselves to support the political reforms and the new resources necessary to reach the Millennium Development Goals, including the promise by the rich countries to give 0.7 of their GDP to public aid for development (PAD) and to increase by 16,000 million dollars the annual aid flows within the year 2006. However, even if the commitments announced in Monterrey were fulfilled, total aid would continue to be very far from the minimum figure of 100,000 million dollars needed each year, according to the recent ‘Report on Human Development 2003’. In fact, fifty thousand million dollars are still lacking. If things remain as they are, "the fight against poverty is one hundred years away from fulfilling its goals and promises" as predicted by Gordon Brown, the British Chancellor of the Exchequer, who added: "the richest countries cannot continue to establish goals without fulfilling them systematically and hoping that the poorest countries calmly continue to believe in us” (Le Figaro économique, 2004). In a world which is ever more globalised, actions within national borders are not sufficient and international cooperation is necessary for the common good. For the rich countries fulfilling their commitments is an ethical issue. This is not benevolence but justice; justice is, as we shall see, the main virtue of a policy aimed at achieving the common good.

Justice is the way to peace and social good

I very much bear in mind the declaration of the Supreme Pontiff, the first Polish Pope in history, to the effect that “Peace is born not only from the elimination of theatres of war. Even if all these latter were eliminated others would inevitably appear, if injustice and oppression continue to govern the world. Peace is born of justice: Opus iustitiae pax” (The Pontifical Academy of Sciences, 2003). Just as one can say that all research should be directed towards truth, so human society, to be truly human, cannot but have another goal, that of justice. Thus, social good passes through justice[1]. In a realistic climate, St Thomas Aquinas affirms that the attraction towards good and towards a just relationship with other people, has priority over all the other figures of conscience and is the beginning of the ethical dimension: “man has a natural inclination to know the truth about God, and to live in society: and in this respect, whatever pertains to this inclination belongs to the natural law; for instance, to shun ignorance, to avoid offending those among whom one has to live, and other such things regarding the above inclination”[2]. So this inclination constitutes a natural impulse to the knowledge of God on the one hand and to the primordial instance to achieve social life by means of justice on the other. That is, justice is the way to social good, ever more so in our globalised world. Of course justice means first and foremost giving each person his due, as the old Latin adage says unicuique suum tribuere[3]. “Each one” is a distributive pronoun, because “the specific act of justice consists in no less than giving to each what is his”[4].

“Justice – writes John Rawls at the beginning of ’A Theory of Justice’ – is the first prerequisite of social institutions, as truth is of the systems of thought” (Rawls, 1971). This statement seems to be more in agreement with Plato’s concept of justice than with Aristotle’s. Justice is the virtue of everything in ‘The Republic’, (Plato) while in the ‘Nicomachean Ethics’ (Aristotle, ‘a’)Aristotle considers distributive justice as a special or partial justice with relation to general justice, which is fundamentally respect for the laws of the City. Why a partial virtue? First of all because the equality of distributive justice is not of an arithmetic nature (1=1), as is commutative justice, but of a proportional nature (2:4=3:6), i.e., it is an equality of relations between people and goods; i.e. the relation of a person to a good must be analogous to the relation of another person to another good[5]. Moreover, it is partial, because distributive justice deals with the specific situation of the repartition or distribution of goods, honours, advantages. Today we would include, as Rawls states, both commercial goods, i.e. energy, water, food, salaries, property, social benefits, and non commercial ones, i.e. citizenship, security, health, education, honours, including the roles of command, authority, and responsibility carried out within the framework of all kinds of institutions, whether private or public, national or international. Therefore, this is a matter not only of distributing the material goods of the world but also the goods of the spirit, i.e., that which is more specifically human, for, as Aristotle observes, “the human race lives…by art and reasoning” (Aristotle, ‘b’).

However, why does the Philosopher consider distribution only a part of justice? Probably because he wants to prevent us from thinking of society as a distributor of parts, which is always an act of separation in order to determine which part goes to one and which to the other, when in actual fact society is mainly a whole. Society must be understood as a “cooperation scheme”, an expression which we find right from the opening lines of Rawls’ ‘A Theory of Justice’, a book in which, in any case, the analysis of society as a distribution system prevails. Today it is necessary to take into serious consideration a notion of the common good consisting in goods and values that are participated and shared by possibly active subjects in the global society. On the other hand, we may see in the metaphor of distribution the two aspects that must be coordinated because in actual fact they belong to each other: repartition is something which divides us because my part is not yours, but at the same time, repartition is something which forces us to share, in the strong sense of the word, be part of, take part in…. Urged by economic worries, today we tend to forget that, unlike material goods, the spiritual goods which are properly human expand and multiply when communicated: i.e., unlike divisible goods, spiritual goods such as knowledge, values and education are indivisible and the more one shares them, the more one possesses of them[6].

Therefore we can affirm that both for the Greek and for the Medieval thinkers, as well as for contemporary authors, distributive justice is the main virtue of a policy which aims for the common good.

Concentrating on education is the first task of a global world

The central reality on which today, more than ever before, we should place emphasis is education. Science – which involves the production, acquisition and transmission of knowledge – and education make up an increasingly interdependent system that shapes life on this planet. The organisation of scientific advance has certainly come to be a much more difficult task than the management of the world’s wealth. Education, a specific right of the human being inasmuch as he is a rational being[7], which should be the most human and effective way to promote freedom, fraternity and social equality, is becoming more and more a factor of discrimination and exclusion. It is well-known that the lack of quality (current values and technology) and quantity (schooling and retention rate) in education is one of the causes of extreme poverty. Today we live in a “knowledge society”, that is why it is necessary to extend to everyone and improve the quality of the educational services necessary to take part in it. Indeed, a fair and equitable society distinguishes itself for the level and extent of its education (Pontificia Academia Scientiarum Vatican City, 2002; Suárez-Orozco and Qin-Hilliard, 2004).

Nevertheless, the problem of education in a globalised world does not only mean a problem of distributive justice as regards knowledge, i.e. extending literacy to every inhabitant of the developing countries: the driving forces of globalisation are posing new challenges to education, for families, schools, universities and lifelong training in all the countries of the world, both in developed and developing countries. I would like to stress two aspects that make it necessary to rethink the subject of education in our world, one concerning principally what, in the course of culture, has been defined as the ethical aspect, and the other mainly dealing with the theoretical or anthropological aspect.

The rehabilitation of ethics

Indeed it is important to situate the educational effort within the main consideration of culture, because human beings will not be able to stop questioning themselves on the profound meaning of education with relation to the praxis of the persons, and to direct their attention to the human behaviours centred, after Socrates (470 – 399 b.C.), on the idea of good and virtue. These normative ideas embrace the private and public behaviours that we call “habits” (ethe), which gave origin to the word “ethics”, of which good, justice and virtue are ramifications. In its original nucleus, ethics is at the same time a part of the policy concerning human plurality, and the common content of private morals and public morals. This is the reason why ethics is the emblematic end of that activity, which is distinct both from science (epistémé) and from technology. For this reason I would like to quote Aristotle at the beginning of the ‘Nicomachean Ethics’: “To say however that the Supreme Good is happiness will probably appear a truism; we still require a more explicit account of what constitutes happiness. Perhaps then we may arrive at this by ascertaining what is man's work or deed. For the goodness or efficiency of a flute-player or sculptor or craftsman of any sort, and in general of anybody who has some work or business to perform, is thought to reside in that work; and similarly it may be held that the good of man resides in the work of man, if he carries out a special activity which will permit to discern a fulfilled human life” (Aristotle, ‘c’).

And such is the issue that specifies this praxis relative to habits, which branches out in ethics and politics. Therefore, the grouping of the praxes concerning habits possesses its own consistence within the framework of the plurality of the human praxis: theoretical praxis, scientific praxis, technical praxis, moral praxis (in the wider sense of habits). The idea of good and fairness constitutes its emblem par excellence. Education should not avoid taking into account the contemporary developments of this idea that are located within that “renaissance of ethics” as a reaction to the “crisis” which this discipline underwent, starting from the second half of the 19^th century. Against the descriptive and valueless understanding of human action put in practice by the human and social sciences (in Max Weber’s view “without values”, value-neutral and ethically neutral) is the need to legitimise and rationally found criteria, norms or principles capable of guiding human action, thus restoring issues such as, for example, the problem of morally good actions, the problem of well living in the private and public framework, the issue of the best type of governance. In the light of this rehabilitation, the first issue of an ethical nature that education must deal with is not so much what must be done but how to teach a conduct of life in order to be happy, that is to live well and be well.

However, there is more from this ethical point of view. The fact of globalisation is firstly a physical problem which concerns the repercussion of our actions on other people and on our habitat. Today we can observe that what is done in one area has an influence on the others, starting with the environment and passing through the ecosystem. If a city produces pollution, this pollution will slowly spread to the whole world through the natural carriers of air and water. This implies that human health is endangered either directly or through animals that receive the effects of this pollution and transmit their diseases to man. It is clear that all life on this planet is connected and that if we endanger the lives of plants and animals, we also endanger the lives of human beings. What clearly derives from this is that climate, life in general, human life and the economic and cultural activities of man are interconnected, producing no longer just a local effect but a global one. If we want to understand the economy, we must approach it from the interdisciplinary point of view, because it is connected to environmental science and medical science. For this reason, education in a globalised world must take into account not only complexity but also what it is concretely possible to do to improve the life of the present and future generations and implement the results. Today, education must be aware that all individuals, regardless of whether they live in developing countries or in the developed ones, can contribute to either improving or destroying our habitat, the earth and, consequently, the very life of man. Faced with the scenarios of the globalised world we must be able to predict the influence that our actions may have on the future fate of humanity and our planet. This leads to a new imperative which must be proposed in education, which affirms, according to the philosopher Hans Jonas, “Act so that the effects of your action are compatible with the permanence of genuine human life”; or simply: “Do not compromise the conditions for an indefinite continuation of humanity on earth”; or, again turned positive: “In your present choices, include the future wholeness of man among the objects of your will”. I must be aware that everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being, and to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations. Nature, we now know, is not inexhaustible and without our stewardship even the most elemental requirements for life are in jeopardy. So, everyone has the right to have the environment protected, through reasonable ethics and legislative and other measures that prevent pollution and ecological degradation, promote conservation, and secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development. Briefly, today, after globalisation, education must make people aware that what we do makes a difference and each individual can make a difference in the well being and even the survival of our ecosystem, starting from climate and health and passing through family ecology and the other dimensions of human activity[8].

Man’s knowledge in the condition of science

If the first point aims mainly at practical or ethical reasons, the second one aims particularly at what may be defined as theoretical and anthropological reasons. The globalised world implies an education for all, and not only for the inhabitants of the developed world, that can present in an organic way the tremendous wealth of knowledge that is available today. The idea is that the most important mind in the 21^st century will be the mind that can synthesize knowledge, given the explosion of and ready access to it via the new information technologies. Surprisingly, despite the importance that offering a synthesized or summarised vision of the world has always had, such as was the case in the past (Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Kant), there has been little systematic research on this skill in the present. So the aim of education from now on should be to teach the capacity of synthesizing today’s knowledge and how to continue to develop this dynamic vision in order to keep up to date with the new realities (Gardner, 2005).

It is also the case of offering a hierarchy of knowledge where certain truths are the foundation that others are built upon. Perhaps the first thing that must be clear in a globalised education is our knowledge of the human being in the condition of science.

There was no greater problem until a border was traced between nature intended as possessing a soul or as surrounded by a soul, and a soul which was in itself characterised by an end: this is the epoch of Aristotelian physics and natural ethics. This border was traced at the end of the Renaissance.

The problem became serious when nature became the object of a science based on pure observation, mathematical calculations and experimentation. This is the meaning of the Galileian and Newtonian revolution, as Kant (1787) defined it. The human spirit considers it has no access to the principle of the production of nature in itself or for something other than itself, what Aristotle calls form or formal principle as principle of operation. Therefore only the natural gifts made known in their appearance in space and time can be gathered and phenomena must try to “be saved”. This is no small feat, since the field of observation is so limitless while so powerful is the capability of forming hypotheses with a mathematical formula, of extending and replacing models, of varying the creation of models, of inventing verification and falsification procedures.

However, with the phenomena relative to the human being, this asceticism of the hypothesis, of the creation of models and of experimentation is in part compensated by the fact that we have partial access to the production of certain phenomena which are observable through philosophical self-reflection. This is what, in the praxis of that scientific theory, technologies and habits, can be designated as that genetics of action which belongs to philosophic anthropology. The reflection on the praxes expresses the point of convergence because it indicates the means to an end, that is, human deeds carried out as fulfilment of the human act. Action shows that man moves towards a goal and that he himself is the beginning and the motor of the action. In the vast field of activity, the human being considers himself responsible for his own action. This means that he can trace back the observable effects of his actions (and of his passions) to the intention that gives them meaning and even to the spiritual acts which create finalities that generate observable intentions and results. Thus action can not only be viewed from the outside, like all the natural phenomena of which it is part, but it can also be understood starting from the expressions which are, at the same time, the effects and signs of the intentions that give meaning to it and to the acts creators of meaning which sometimes produce them. The result is that man’s knowledge does not happen at a single level, that of external observation, explanation and experimentation (as a reproduction of phenomena); this knowledge unfolds in the interface of natural observation and of reflective self-comprehension. The human being is at the same time an observable entity, like all the natural beings of which he is a part, and a self-interpreting being, according to Charles Taylor.

This affirmation of the various objective levels of epistemology and, first of all, of the different levels of awareness and self-awareness of the human being, can offer an answer of reconciliation and pacification to the question posed by the statute of the human being in the field of knowledge, unless positivist ideology does not claim the right to abolish the border between the sciences of nature and the sciences of man and to annex the latter to the former.

A controversial point to this end is the field of the neurosciences, which today more than ever are decisive for education. Of course I will limit myself to tracing only the conditions of a possible articulation of the two approaches to man.

In terms of the neurosciences, the scientist is expected to seek at the cortical level the correlation between the observable structures and the functions where the structures are the basis, the supports, the nervous material or whatever we may want to call it. The scientist only observes quantitative and qualitative changes, the ever more complex hierarchies of observable phenomena; but the sense of the function which corresponds to the structure is understood only by the subject who says that he perceives, that he imagines, that he recalls. These verbal statements, together with behavioural signs that the human being shares to a large extent with higher animals, fall within a type of approach where there is no mention of neurons, synapses etc. but of impressions, intentions, dispositions, wishes, choices, ideas etc. We find here a certain semantic dualism, if we may say so, that does not jeopardise the absolute nature of the human being. An important corollary of such semantic dualism consists in the fact that we speak in similar terms of the body, of the same body in both approaches: there is the body object, of which the brain is the guiding force with its marvellous architecture, and the body proper, this body that is the only one that is mine, that belongs to me, which I move, which I suffer; and there are my organs, my eyes “with” which I see, my hands “with” which I grasp. And it is on this body proper that all the architecture of my powers and my non-powers is built: power to do and not to do; power to do this or that; power to say, to act, to attribute to myself my own actions as the real author of them, being therefore free.

So this is where the issue of the relationship between the two approaches, that of the neurologist and that of the philosopher or humanist, emerges. And it is here that the approaches cross without ever dissolving one into the other. The scientist and the philosopher can agree to call the body object (and its marvel, the brain), the “reality without which we cannot think or decide or feel or live”. The scientist can continue to profess a sort of materialism in his method, which enables him to work without metaphysical scruples: the philosopher therefore will speak of the brain in terms of recipient structure, of support, of substrate, of basis, of potency, of encephalic matter. It must be accepted that, for the moment, we do not have a third approach where there appears a certain awareness that this mind-body and my living body are one and the same being. However, the approach of this mind-body must have a certain opening towards the approach of my living body and vice versa, and that is while the approach of my living body gives to me my experience and philosophical reflection, it must be open or enable indirectly or per accidents the approach of this mind-body and vice versa.

We notice here that we do not have direct access to the very origin of the being that we are, in other words we do not have a sort of self-transparency of ourselves and of our selfhood and, starting from this centre, a self-transparency also of all of our actions. On the contrary, our being attests its existence in the concrete and current exercise of our life. In a realist vision, Saint Thomas indicates it clearly: “In hoc enim aliquis percepit se animam habere, et vivere et esse, quod percepit se sentire et intelligere et alia huiusmodi opera vitae exercere” (Saint Thomas Aquinas, 'a'). In the perception of our praxis or activity there is the co-perception of the beginning: “perceptis actibus animae, percipitur inesse principium talium actum” (Saint Thomas Aquinas, 'b'). Saint Thomas assures us that our soul, since it grasps universals, perceives (percepit) that is has a spiritual form; again, he admits that we are aware of the very becoming of the universal in the soul and even that the very light of intelligence makes its presence known to us by means of it. This signifies affirming in an explicit manner a perception proper of the spiritual reality in a positive way but by means of the spiritual operation of implementing the intelligible: “And we know this by experience, since we perceive that we abstract universal forms from their particular conditions, which is to make them actually intelligible” i.e. “Et hoc experimento cognoscimus, dum percimus nos abstrahere formas universales a conditionibus particularibus quod est facere actu intelligibilia”[9].

The ultimate originality of this perception of our spiritual reality is the absolutely original fundamental situation that we may call “the emergence of freedom” or of the capability of acting or of non acting, of doing good or evil. Quite rightly Christian thought, long before and with more precision than the moderns, regarding this reality of the spiritual subject, had called freedom the “motor omnium” of the activity of the person, and the protagonist of personality is the “I”, the self (selfhood), the human subject that we discover through praxis. Therefore the soul lies hidden within each of us, but it attests its presence with the capability of action, then with praxis and agency itself, of which the self, selfhood or the original subject is the beginning, the motor and the end. This attestation is more than an opinion and is older than any science, both theoretical and practical.

Aware of the lack of a direct and self-transparent approach of such a founding origin, scientists and philosophers will aim at seeking an ever more precise adjustment between a neuroscience which is more and more expert in material architecture and the phenomenological and anthropologic descriptions “decentred” towards an origin, thanks to which a ground of being is indicated, at once potent and effective, against which human acting stands out. In other words, it appears equally important that human acting is the locus of legibility par excellence both of naturalistic neuroscience and of the anthropological reflection and that the being as act and as potency has fields of application other than human action. Neuronal and philosophical centrality in acting and decentring in the direction of a ground of act and potency, these two traits are equally and jointly constitutive of an ontology of the human being in terms of act and potency (Ricoeur, 1992). Therefore only the human being has this double legibility, the external objective one that is common to all the beings of nature that is the theme of epistémé and the one of self-reflection which belongs to philosophy according to the Socratic precept “know yourself” which understands its being as an act of an active potency that we call soul (Saint Thomas Aquinas, 'c'). Therefore, only the human being is able to create a circularity between one and the other legibility, seeing, so to speak, externally the functioning of his brain with the new sensors that represent it as in a film and interpreting from the inside this representation in the film starting from self-reflection on himself.

There is nothing more ours than our brain yet there is nothing we know less about. The ancients thought that the heart was the centre of life because it beats constantly like a pump telling us “I am here”. On the contrary, the brain was, so to speak, the big silence, the great silence or the sealed box of our body. Today however the brain opens up and shows itself in part thanks to the neurosciences and it can prove to be the turning point for a new beginning where the external experience can be joined to the internal one and science can be joined with philosophy each in its respective function and consistency, and in their mutual circularity. In this way a breach can be achieved in the limit of encephalic matter, that keeps conscience always on the alert and in motion. This is not present in the ancient philosophies, in the Middle Ages, in the modern or in the contemporary ones, and if the human being is analysed, he is so from a formal point of view without these dynamic and circular links with scientific knowledge of my body and my brain. This starts being true in those sciences, such as neurology, that are starting to open up to other fields of knowledge. It is not that I am my body, not even its masterpiece which is the brain: I am neither the brain nor the body, I have a brain and a body but – as we have tried to show – in order to understand my “being” I must know what it means to have a brain, to have a body through the knowledge of them that experience and science offer to me.

This knowledge of man starting from the genetics of action that takes into account the data offered by neurological science can prove to be the decisive moment for a new beginning also for education as shown by the new discipline that tries to put together both the mind-brain issue and the recent research in education which is rightly called mind-brain education. Therefore, education today cannot ignore science and philosophy or this new interdisciplinary point of view on man, the mind-brain education that can clarify the question of the truth of the human being and his dignity. The explanation of the concept of human dignity in education, that is, the fundament of the modern human rights theory, cannot be overemphasised or taken for granted.

References

ARISTOTLE, ‘a’. Nicomachean Ethics, Book V. Available from Internet: http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/nicomachean/book5.html.

ARISTOTLE, ‘b’. Metaphysics, Book I. Available from Internet: http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/metaphysics/book1.html.

ARISTOTLE, ‘c’. Nicomachean Ethics. Available from Internet: http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/nicomachean/complete.html.

GARDNER, H. The Synthesizing of Knowledge: An Imperative in a Global Society. Abstract for the workshop on ‘Globalisation and Education’ to be held in November, Vatican City 2005.

KANT, Immanuel. Critique of Pure Reason. Preface to the second edition (1787). Available from Internet: http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/k16p2.html.

KHOR, Martin. Globalisation and the South: Some Critical Issues. Penang, Malaysia, Third World Network, 2000. 110 p. ISBN 983-9747-46-0.

Le Figaro économique, June 2^nd, 2004, p. III.

PLATO. The Republic, Book IV. Available from Internet: http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/p/p71r/book04.html

PONTIFICIA ACADEMIA SCIENTIARUM VATICAN CITY. The Challenges for Science. Education for the Twenty-First Century, Vatican City 2002, pp. VII-292. ISBN 88-7761-080-8. Available from Internet: http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdscien/archivio/s.v.104_the_challenges/
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RAWLS, John. A Theory of Justice. The Belknap of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1971.

RICOEUR, Paul. Tenth Study: What Ontology in View?. In: Oneself as Another. Chicago-London, 1992, pp. 302-308. ISBN 0226713296.

SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, 'a'. Quaestiones disputatae: De Veritate. 10, 8.

SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, 'b'. Quaestiones disputatae: De Veritate. 10, 9.

SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, 'c'. Quaestiones disputatae: Quaestiones disputatae de spiritualibus creaturis. A. 1.

SUÁREZ-OROZCO, Marcelo and QIN-HILLIARD, Desiree B. eds. Globalization, Culture and Education in the New Millennium’, University of California, Berkeley, Los Angeles-London, 2004, 275 p.

The Pontifical Academy of Sciences. Address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, 12 November 1983, Papal Addresses, Vatican City, 2003, p. 261.

UNDP Report 1999 (United Nations Development Programme). Human Development Report 1999. Globalization with a Human Face. 1999. Available from Internet: http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1999/en/

UNDP Report 2003 (United Nations Development Programme). Human Development Report 2003. Millennium Development Goals: A compact among nations to end human poverty. 2003.Available from Internet: http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/.

[1]Saint Thomas Aquinas places great emphasis on the superior architectural importance of justice inasmuch as it orders each man, in himself and in relation to others, to good: “Pars autem id quod est totius est, unde et quodlibet bonum partis est ordinabile in bonum totius. Secundum hoc igitur bonum cuiuslibet virtutis, sive ordinantis aliquem hominem ad seipsum sive ordinantis ipsum ad aliquas alias personas singulares, est referibile ad bonum commune, ad quod ordinat iustitia. Et secundum hoc actus omnium virtutum possunt ad iustitiam pertinere, secundum quod ordinat hominem ad bonum commune. Et quantum ad hoc iustitia dicitur virtus generalis”, i.e. “… while a part, as such, belongs to a whole, so that whatever is the good of a part can be directed to the good of the whole. It follows therefore that the good of any virtue, whether such virtue direct man in relation to himself, or in relation to certain other individual persons, is referable to the common good, to which justice directs: so that all acts of virtue can pertain to justice, in so far as it directs man to the common good. It is in this sense that justice is called a general virtue”. (S. Th., II-II, q. 58, a. 5 cor.). The comparison with charity is also very meaningful. “Sicut enim caritas potest dici virtus generalis inquantum ordinat actus omnium virtutum ad bonum divinum, ita etiam iustitia legalis inquantum ordinat actus omnium virtutum ad bonum commune. Sicut ergo caritas, quae respicit bonum divinum ut proprium obiectum, est quaedam specialis virtus secundum suam essentiam; ita etiam iustitia legalis est specialis virtus secundum suam essentiam, secundum quod respicit commune bonum ut proprium obiectum. Et sic est in principe principaliter, et quasi architectonice; in subditis autem secundario et quasi ministrative” (Ib., a. 6 cor.).

[2]“Inest homini inclinatio ad bonum secundum naturam rationis, quae est sibi propria, sicut homo habet naturalem inclinationem ad hoc quod veritatem cognoscat de Deo, et ad hoc quod in societate vivat. Et secundum hoc, ad legem naturalem pertinent ea quae ad huiusmodi inclinationem spectant, utpote quod homo ignorantiam vitet, quod alios non offendat cum quibus debet conversari, et cetera huiusmodi quae ad hoc spectant” (S. Th., I-II, q. 94, a. 2 cor.).[3]Saint Ambrose affirms that: “iustitia est quae unicuique quod suum est tribuit, alienum non vindicat, utilitatem propriam negligit ut communem aequitatem custodiat”, i.e. “It is justice that renders to each one what is his, and claims not another's property; it disregards its own profit in order to preserve the common equity.” (De Off. 1, 24).[4]“Proprius actus iustitiae nihil est aliud quam reddere unicuique quod suum est” (S. Th., II-II, q. 58, a. 11 cor.).[5] “Generalis forma iustitiae est aequalitas, in qua convenit iustitia distributiva cum commutativa. In una tamen invenitur aequalitas secundum proportionalitatem geometricam, in alia secundum arithmeticam”, i.e. “Equality is the general form of justice, wherein distributive and commutative justice agree: but in one we find equality of geometrical proportion, whereas in the other we find equality of arithmetical proportion”. (S. Th., II-II, q. 61, a. 2 ad 2).[6] “Spiritualia bona sunt specialiter non ritenenda per se, quia comunicata non minuuntur sed crescent” (St. Thomas Aquinas, De Malo, q. 13, 1 pret. 8).[7] “All men of every race, condition and age, since they enjoy the dignity of a human being, have an inalienable right to an education” (Vatican Council II, Declaration on Christian Education, Gravissimum Educationis, § 1). Cfr. Pius XII's radio message of Dec. 24, 1942, A.A.S. 35 (1943), pp. 12-19; and John XXIII's encyclical letter, Pacem in Terris, 11 April 1963, A.A.S. 55 (1963), p. 259 ff. Also, cfr. Declaration on the Rights of Man, in footnote 3.[8]We find here the problem of the responsibility that each person has of the effects of his actions, especially when these effects are negative and involuntary. The following text of Saint Thomas Aquinas may serve to clarify the problem: “a judge has a good will, in willing a thief to be put to death, because this is just: while the will of another--e.g. the thief's wife or son, who wishes him not to be put to death, inasmuch as killing is a natural evil, is also good […] because the judge has care of the common good, which is justice, and therefore he wishes the thief's death, which has the aspect of good in relation to the common estate; whereas the thief's wife has to consider the private, the good of the family, and from this point of view she wishes her husband, the thief, not to be put to death” (S. Th., I-II, 19, 10). So, the alternative to total and indiscriminate responsibility is the graduation according to the order of relation that each has with the common good, of course to the extent to which each seeks the good not by doing evil deeds.

[9]S. Th., I, 79, 4. Also: “The human soul understands itself through its own act of understanding, which is proper to it, showing perfectly its power and nature” i.e. “Anima humana intelligit seipsam per suum intelligere, quod est actus proprius eius, perfecte demonstrans virtutem eius et naturam” (Ib. I, 88, 2 ad 3).

Note: Electronic Journal of Biotechnology is not responsible if on-line references cited on manuscripts are not available any more after the date of publication.

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学术论文之注释与参考书目转载

学术论文之注释与参考书目
编辑时间：2004/04/30 国立中央图书馆台湾分馆馆刊

国立中央图书馆台湾分馆馆刊, 第六卷第三期, 第15-38页

学术论文之注释与参考书目

谢宝暖(国立台湾大学图书信息学研究所副教授)

摘要

　　在学术论文或研究报告之写作中，经常延用其它学者专家之理念或引用其话语，或者参考相关之研究与文献，因此著名之学术暨研究机构，以及大学或系所，甚至是学术出版社，都编制有相关之写作或是引用格式，以供作者在写作时征引相关论述或是编制参考书目时之参考。其中又以Chicago Manual、APA Manual以及MLA Manual最为大众所熟知，而有三大格式之称。本文就三大格式举例比较分析，以了解其间之异同，帮助读者选择适用之格式做为论文写作之依据。

壹、前言

　　大学教育旨在培养学生独立思考和研究分析的能力，而研究报告与论文写作正是训练独立思考与思辨能力最好的方法。所以，在大学，尤其是研究所中很多的课程都是以论文或是研究报告作为评量学生学习绩效的标准，而且对于研究报告和学位论文都有严格的规定和要求。美国著名的大学都编有论文写作手册，详细规定论文的格式、征引资料的方法和参考书目的编制方式。其中又以Chicago、APA和MLA三套写作手册最为中外学术论着和期刊编辑所普遍采用，Booklist称其为「三大(Big Three)」。鉴此，本文拟针对这三套写作手册加以介绍，并就其格式并列比较，以供青年学子、学者专家与期刊编辑，在选择和撰编书目暨引用格式时之参考。

　　首先，让我们来了解一下这三套写作手册的背景与发展：

　　˙The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers. 14th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.

　　芝加哥大学出版部在1906年出版 Manual of Style，经过了将近一世纪的增补修订，建立了学术论文写作与书目格式的权威地位。The Chicago Manual of Style到1993年已经出版了十四版(注1)，内容包括书籍论文的编制(Bookmaking)、格式(Style)、出版与印刷(Production and Printing)等三部份。第二部份「格式」中详细说明撰写论文时需注意的细节，包括标点符号、人名和数字的写法、引文的写法、图表的制作、数学公式、缩写、以及注释和书目的编制方法等。其中第二部份的第15和16单元正是书目格式指南(Documentation)，是撰写论文时，编写注释与参考书目之必要参考。

　　Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 6th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

　　是Chicago Manual的节缩版，以大学生写作期末报告或是研究生撰写博硕士论文的需求而编写的，内容精简值得利用。

　　˙Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (1994). (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

　　就是大家习称的APA Manual，也是社会科学领域的学术期刊经常采用的书目格式。1928年时一群心理学和人类学期刊的主编们聚会讨论有关期刊稿约的议题，拟出一份说明提供给欲投稿的作者参考，做为投稿者准备稿件和期刊编辑审核稿件之依据。这次会议是由National Research Council所赞助，而会议最后拟出一份七页的写作指南，于1929年刊登在美国心理学会所出版的Psychological Bulletin上，这就是APA Style的前身。1944年APA的编辑委员将其内容加以扩充，成为32页，以鼓励年轻的学者从事专业写作，尤其是帮助第一次投稿的作者有效率地准备符合期刊水准的稿件。1952年正式以Publication Manual的名称出版，并于1994年出版第4版。全书共分七章，分别阐释稿件的内容与组织、观念的表达、APA编辑格式、稿件的准备与模板、稿件的接受与出版、 APA期刊的政策与编辑对稿件的管理、参考书目。其中第三章APA的编辑格式中，对书目的写作与引用有详细的介绍，值得参考利用。

　　˙Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1995.

　　Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing. 2nd ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1998.

　　MLA Style是人文领域经常采用的一套书目格式指南。MLA Handbook是为高中生和大学生撰写研究报告而编制的，而MLA Style Manual则是为研究生和专家学者撰写学术论文而编制的。

　　美国现代语言学会于1977年出版第一版的MLA Handbook，为学术期刊和大学出版社所广泛采用。1995年出版第四版(注2)，内容包含六部份：研究与写作、写作要点、研究报告之版式、编制参考书目、着录文献来源、缩写。预计1999年夏季出版第五版，纳入网络资源之引用格式，请参考MLA之网站公告(http://www.mla.org)。MLA Style Manual的第一版在1985年出版，1998年所出版的第二版内容详述出版过程，从稿件的准备到与出版相关的版权和法律问题，都有详细说明。

贰、文献引用之方式

　　在学术论文或研究报告中，采用其它学者专家之理念或引用其话语时，均应详细注明来源或出处。将他人的话语原文摘录时，应以引号来标示，中文以「」为引号，西文则以“ ”为引号。即使是将他人的话语改写或是摘录节缩，都必须忠实地载明资料来源，适时将功劳与荣耀归给原作者。换句话说，任何人不可以在陈述他人的创作或是理念时，就好象是在陈述自己的创作或是理念一般让读者无法分辨，否则就有剽窃之嫌。

　　引用资料来源，中文通常以注释(Notes)统称。实际上西文论文写作格式是有明确区分的。依其版面编排方式分为Endnotes和Footnotes(脚注)两种。Footnotes是放在每页下缘，Endnotes则是放在每章节之末，很多畅销书或教科书甚至把所有注释集中放在全书之末。

　　一般而言，注释之功能有四：一、对于正文中所陈述之事实、论点、或所引述之文句，说明所根据资料来源之权威性；二、做为交互参照(Cross-reference)，指引读者参照论文中其它有关部分；三、当作者认为应该对正文中所提到的资料或所讨论的议题，做进一步的附带说明、评论或衍伸，而又怕在正文中提及会影响行文顺畅，或是打断读者的思路时，就可以利用注释来加以阐释；四、作者对在其研究过程中，曾给予支持、协助或启发之个人或团体，表示感谢之意(注3)。

　　因此，注释可以分为两种，一为说明资料出处的资料注(Reference notes)，用以彰显前述注释之第一、二项功用；二为解释内容的内容注(Content notes)，用以满足前述注释之第三、四项功用。

　　注释之标示方式，通常是将注释号码以圆括号或上标，标示于引文或作者姓名之后。但亦有以「作者－年代」方式来标示资料来源的，兹分述如下：

1.连续注释

　　此种方法系将注释号码以圆括号或上标置于引文或作者姓名之后，而以Endnotes或是Footnotes的方式，依序列出资料注或是内容注。注释之排列则是依正文中注释号码依次列出，同一注释中得引用一种以上之著作。同一著作于第一次引用时，注释内容应包含完整之书目资料及其页码；引用西文文献之著者，其姓名不需以倒置形式着录。然第二次引用时，应编制不同的注释号码，但得将前引书目资料简化成「同前注」或「同注xx」，若所引资料之页码不同时，加注其页码。

2.编序式参考书目之注释

此种方法首将参考书目依第一资料项(通常为作者之姓名)之字顺排列后依序编号，以圆括号或上标方式将其参考书目编号置于引文后，局部引用时应加注其页码。文末必须附依编号排列之完整参考书目。

3.著者－年代(Author-date)

　　此方法系以圆括号将引用文献之著者与出版年置于引文之后。正文中已出现被引用之作者时，则将出版年以圆括号附于后，局部引用时应加注页码。文末必须附依姓氏字顺排列之完整参考书目，参考书目清单中同一著者在同一年出版不只一种作品时，应在注释与参考书目之出版年后附加英文字母(a、b、c等)区别之。

　　由于引用文献之方式缺乏统一标准，因此，撰写学术论文、博硕士论文或期末报告时，首先必须要确定系所或期刊编辑所订定的写作格式为何，若系所或校方未订定写作格式，则可参考该学域常用之写作规范。很多专业学会均出版有写作手册(注4)，做为该学域学术论文写作之规范。在自然和社会科学领域通常采用「作者－年代」(注5)和参考书目(Reference List)的方式来征引相关文献，而人文学域则是习惯以连续注释的方式来旁征博引，外加考证说明。

　　不同学域之论文写作风格不同，引用文献之方式也不同，参考书目之编制方式亦随之而异。APA和MLA都是采用「作者－年代」之注释方式，中文仅在征引的作品姓名之后，以圆括号注明其著作之出版年；西文则在征引资料之后，以圆括号注明作者的姓(last name)和出版年；并于文末编列参考书目。Chicago Manual则兼容并蓄，提供两套引用文献格式供选择。注释(Note)和书目(Bibliography)的组合，可以方便内容注和资料注之参证征引，而Parenthetical Reference和Reference list则为「作者－年代」之资料注方式。故而Chicago Manual实可满足人文、社会、科学各领域专业论文写作之需要。

参、Chicage、APA、MLA之比较分析

　　Chicago、APA以及MLA三种Style之书目格式对于资料来源之描述有显著差异，其中MLA Style与Chicago Style之书目格式近似；而APA Style则与Chicago Style之Parenthetical Reference与Reference list相近。为深入了解这三种书目格式之异同，接续将针对作者之着录方式，以及图书、期刊论文、报纸、会议论文、博硕士论文、网络资源等各种不同类型之资料媒体，说明其书目着录格式，并举实例比较分析，以供参考。

一、作者之着录方式

　　在引用西文文献或编制参考书目时，经常需以倒置形式排序参考文献或引述作者之姓氏以为左证，因此正确地辨识西文姓氏是很重要的。西文姓氏有其特殊规则或习惯用法，是非英语系者常混淆的，遇有疑惑时应查检字典，确定其用法。例如有些姓氏应包含冠词和介系词(如de，la，du，von等)，而有些接首词并非姓氏的一部份，应小心使用。下列是Chicago Manual中所举的常见例子，摘录以供参考(注6)。

Eugen D’Albert　　D’Albert, Eugen

Lee De Forest　　De Forest, Lee

Walter de la Mare　　de la Mare, Walter

Daphne du Maurier　　du Maurier, Daplne

Eva Le Gallienne　　Le Gallienne, Eva

Abraham Ten Broeck　　Ten Broeck, Abraham

Martin Van Buren　　Van Buren, Martin

Wernher von Braun　　Von Braun, Wernher

Alexander de Seversky　　de Seversky, Alexander

Eamon De Valera　　De Valera, Eamon

　　Chicago Style提供注释格式、书目格式和「作者－年代」之引用文献方式，供读者选择，通常人文领域习采用注释方式，而科学领域采用「作者－年代」方式，至于社会科学领域则两者均有学者采用，读者可依写作题材与内容，自行选择适用之引用文献格式。如果论述仅以资料注形式引用文献时，建议采用「作者－年代」方式；若论述时需对所引用文献加以考证引申时，则建议采用兼容资料注与内容注之注释格式。在本文中将仿照Turabian，以N代表注释，B代表书目；PR(Parenthetical Reference)代表正文中之引用格式，RL(Reference List)则为文末所附之参考书目格式。

　　Chicago Style对西文作者之姓名采全名拼出之方式处理，在书目中为方便依字顺排序，故采倒置之形式呈现。当所引用之著作包含多位作者时，仅第一位作者之姓名以倒置形式出现即可，其余仍以名在前姓在后之方式呈现。同时在正文中包含三位以内作者时，三位作者均需全部列出；三位以上作者时，可以第一作者为代表，但在参考书目中则不计作者人数多寡，均需全部列出。在引用多位作者时，以and连接。

APA Style在参考书目中为满足排序之目的，作者姓名之着录均以倒置形式出现，名字部份均以缩写方式表示。若所引用之著作包含多位作者时，在正文中六位以内均需全部列出，六位以上才可以第一作者代表，但在参考书目中则不计作者人数多寡，均需全部列出。在正文中引用多位作者时，以and连接，但正文之引用若为圆括号形式，则使用＆符号连接，在参考书目中则一律使用&符号连接。

　　MLA Style与Chicago Style同。兹依作者人数多寡，举例说明之。

(一)当作者为一人时

　　Chicago Style之注释和书目之主要差别在于注释是编号排序，所以无须当作者姓名倒置，因此其后是接逗号，而且出版项必须以圆括号标示；而书目必须以作者之姓氏排序，故西文作者应采倒置形式处理，后面接句点，出版信息则不须加圆括号。在括号注中西文作者姓氏与年代之间不用加逗号，然而若中文不加逗号易混淆，故建议加上逗号。而APA Style之括号注则在作者姓氏与年代之间加逗号区隔。Chicago Style之书目清单中作者与年代之间是以句号区隔，而APA Style是将年代标示在圆括号中。

Chicago Style

N:
Ronald R. Powell, Basic Research Methods for Librarians (Greenwich, CT: Ablex, 1985), 10.

司徒达贤。策略管理(台北市：远流，1995)，20。

梁启超着。中国历史研究法(台北市：里仁，民73)，30。

B:
Powell, Ronald R. Basic Research Methods for Librarians. Greenwich, CT: Ablex, 1985.

司徒达贤。策略管理。台北市：远流，1995。

梁启超着。中国历史研究法。台北市：里仁，民73。

PR:
(Powell 1985, 10)

(司徒达贤，1995，20)

(梁启超，民73，30)

RL:
Powell, Ronald R. 1997. Basic Research Methods for Librarians. 3rd ed. Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

司徒达贤。1995。策略管理。台北市：远流。

梁启超着。民73。中国历史研究法。台北市：里仁。

APA Style

PR:
(Powell, 1985)

(司徒达贤，1995)

(梁启超，民73)

RL:
Powell, R. R. (1985). Basic research methods for librarians. London: Ablex.

司徒达贤(1995)。策略管理。台北市：远流。

梁启超着(民73)。中国历史研究法。台北市：里仁。

MLA Style

　
Powell, Ronald R. Basic Research Methods for Librarians. Greenwich, CT: Ablex, 1985.

司徒达贤。策略管理。台北市：远流，1995。

梁启超着。中国历史研究法。台北市：里仁，民73。

(二)当作者为二人时

　　当作者为两人时，Chicago Style是以”and”连接两位作者；而APA Style则是以”&”连接两位作者。

Chicago Style

N:
Allen Rubin and Earl Babbie. Research Methods for Social Work (Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1989), 10.

胡述兆、吴祖善。图书馆学导论(台北市：汉美，1989)，20。

B:
Rubin, Allen, and Earl Babbie. Research Methods for Social Work. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1989.

胡述兆、吴祖善。图书馆学导论。台北市：汉美，1989。

PR:
(Rubin and Babbie 1989, 10)

(胡述兆、吴祖善1989, 20)

RL:
Rubin, Allen, and Earl Babbie. 1989. Research methods for social work. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

胡述兆、吴祖善。1989。图书馆学导论。台北市：汉美。

APA Style

PR:
(Rubin & Babbie, 1989)

(胡述兆、吴祖善，1989)

RL:
Rubin, A. & Babbie, E. (1989). Research methods for social work. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

胡述兆、吴祖善(1989)。图书馆学导论。台北市：汉美。

MLA Style

　
Rubin, Allen, and Earl Babbie. Research Methods for Social Work. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1989.

胡述兆与吴祖善。图书馆学导论。台北市：汉美，1989。

(三)当作者为三人以上时

　　当作者人数大于三人时，Chicago Style在注释和括号注中，均采省略方式处理，可以”and others”或是“et al.”来取代第二位以后的作者，但是在书目中则必须将所有作者一一列出。APA Style则必须在作者数大于六人时，才可以省略方式处理，同样在书目中无论作者人数多寡，均须一一列出。

Chicago Style

N:
Peter Banister and others, Qualitative Methods in Psychology: A Research Guide (Buckingham, MK: Open University Press, 1994), 10.

叶启政等编着，社会科学概论(台北市：空大，民83)，20。

B:
Banister, Peter, Erica Burman, Ian Parker, Maye Taylor, and Carol Tindall. Qualitative Methods in Psychology: A Research Guide. Buckingham, MK: Open University Press, 1994.

叶启政、顾忠华、黄瑞祺、苏峰山、邹川雄编着。社会科学概论。台北市：空大，民83。

PR:
(Banister and others 1994, 10)

(Banister et al. 1994, 10)

(叶启政等，民83，20)

RL:
Banister, Peter, Erica Burman, Ian Parker, Maye Taylor, and Carol Tindall. 1994. Qualitative methods in psychology: A research guide. Buckingham, MK: Open University Press.

叶启政、顾忠华、黄瑞祺、苏峰山、邹川雄编着。民83。社会科学概论。台北市：空大。

APA Style

PR:
(Banister, Burman, Parker, Taylor & Tindall, 1994)

(叶启政、顾忠华、黄瑞祺、苏峰山、邹川雄，民83)

RL:
Banister, P., Burman, E., Parker, I., Taylor, M., & Tindall, C. (1994). Qualitative methods in psychology: A research guide. Buckingham, MK: Open University Press.

叶启政、顾忠华、黄瑞祺、苏峰山、邹川雄编着(民83)。社会科学概论。台北市：空大。

MLA Style

　
Banister, Peter, et al. Qualitative Methods in Psychology: A Research Guide. Buckingham, MK: Open University Press, 1994.

叶启政、顾忠华、黄瑞祺、苏峰山、邹川雄编着。社会科学概论。台北市：空大，民83。

(四)当作者为团体时

　　当著作是由一个团体或机构出版时，括号注的形式正文中第一次引用时，应写出全名，并以中括号注明习用之简称，第二次以后引用时，可以简称替代。若该机构没有习用之简称，则每次都应以全称引用。当出版者与作者或编者相同时，西文以Author或Editor，中文以「作者」或「编者」来代表出版者。

Chicago Style

N:
Library Association, Children and Young People: Library Association Guidelines for Public Library Services (London: Library Association, 1991), 10.

中华图书信息学教育学会编，中华民国图书信息学系现况暨教育文献书目(台北市：编者，民87)，20。

B:
Library Association. Children and Young People: Library Association Guidelines for Public Library Services. London: Library Association, 1991.

中华图书信息学教育学会编。中华民国图书信息学系现况暨教育文献书目。台北市：编者，民87。

PR:
(Library Association 1991,10)

(中华图书信息学教育学会，民87，20)

RL:
Library Association. 1991. Children and young people: Library Association guidelines for public library services. London: Library Association.

中华图书信息学教育学会编。民87。中华民国图书信息学系现况暨教育文献书目。台北市：编者。

APA Style

PR:
在正文中第一次引用：

(Library Association [LA], 1991)

第二次以后引用：

(LA, 1991)

(中华图书信息学教育学会，民87)

RL:
Library Association. (1991). Children and young people: Library Association guidelines for public library services. London: Author.

中华图书信息学教育学会编(民87)。中华民国图书信息学系现况暨教育文献书目。台北市：编者。

MLA Style

　
Library Association. Children and Young People: Library Association Guidelines for Public Library Services. London: Library Association, 1991.

中华图书信息学教育学会编。中华民国图书信息学系现况暨教育文献书目。台北市：编者，民87。

二、图书

　　一般习称之图书，其实除了单行本图书(monographs)之外，尚包括小册子、论文集、手册等等非连续性之出版品。引用时，可能引用整本图书，也可能只引用书中之章节，其书目格式各有不同。

　　引用图书时，应该包括下列信息：

˙作者或编者

˙完整的书名(若有副书名亦应包括在内)

˙版次

˙出版地

˙出版者

˙出版年

　　编制参考书目的目的之一是要方便读者辨识和利用相关资料来源，所以参考书目所提供的信息必须正确完整。通常每项参考书目应该包括：作者、出版年、题名和出版信息，在编制参考书目时，必须详细核对原始文献资料，确定作者、书刊名之拼法写法正确无误。为节省篇幅，参考书目中常以缩写字来代替，常用之缩写为：

Chap.　　Chapter

Ed.　　Edition

Rev. ed.　　Revised edition

2nd ed.　　Second edition

Ed. (eds.)　　Editor (Editors)

Trans.　　Translator(s)

n. d.　　No date

p. (pp.)　　Page (pages)

Vol.　　Volume(as in Vol.4)

Vols.　　Volumes(as in 4 vols.)

No.　　Number

Pt.　　Part

Tech. Rep.　　Technical Report

Suppl.　　Supplement

　　对于图书、技术报告、小册子及其它非连续性出版品，在参考书目中应注明出版地，美国地区应注明城市名和州名，美国以外地区则注明城市名和国名。下列大城市已为出版业者所熟知，不需加注州名缩写：

Baltimore
New York
Amsterdam
Paris

Boston
Philadelphia
Jerusalem
Rome

Chicago
San Francisco
London
Stockholm

Los Angeles
　
Milan
Tokyo

　
　
Moscow
Vienna

　　美国各州之州名系采用美国邮政服务之两个字母缩写法，详如下表。

Location
Abbreviation

Alabama

Alaska

American Samoa

Arizona

Arkansas

California

Canal Zone

Colorado

Connecticut

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Guam

Hawaii

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina

North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Puerto Rico

Rode Island

South Carolina

South Dakota

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

Virgin Islands

Washington

West Virginia

Wisconsin

Wyoming
AL

AK

AS

AZ

AR

CA

CZ

CO

CT

DE

DC

FL

GA

GU

HI

ID

IL

IN

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME

MD

MA

MI

MN

MS

MO

MT

NE

NV

NH

NJ

NM

NY

NC

ND

OH

OK

OR

PA

PR

RI

SC

SD

TN

TX

UT

VT

VA

VI

WA

WV

WI

WY

　　此外，虽然有些图书的册数和期刊的卷期数，是以罗马数字标示，在参考书目中为节省篇幅和方便辨识起见，都改以阿拉伯数字呈现。

(一)一般格式

　　Chicago Style之书目格式书名每个字的第一个字母都要大写(冠词除外)，RL格式则只有句首的字母要大写。其次是年代，书目格式之年代放在出版者之后，而RL格式之年代放在作者之后。APA Style之书名只有首字的第一个字母要大写，在作者之后，以括号注明年代。MLA Style与Chicago Style之书目格式相同，书名的每字前缀都要大写，年代放在出版者之后。

　　若有版次或是册次等必要信息，以“3rd ed.”、 “Vol. 4”或「三版」注明之。出版者则以最简洁且易辨识之出版社名称着录，将学会或是大学出版社之全称列出，但省略“Co.”、 “Publishers”、或“Inc.”等字样。如果出版地不只一个，则着录排名第一或是最显著者，或是该出版社之总部。

Chicago Style

B:
Brown, Stanley A. What Customers Value Most: How to Improve the Processes That Touch Your Customers. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.

卫南阳。顾客满意学。台北市：牛顿，民85。

RL:
Brown, Stanley A. 1995. What customers value most: How to improve the processes that touch your customers. New York: John Wiley & Sons,.

卫南阳，民85。顾客满意学。台北市：牛顿。

APA Style

　
Brown, S. A.(1995). What customers value most: How to Improve the Processes That Touch Your Customers. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

卫南阳(民85)。顾客满意学。台北市：牛顿。

MLA Style

　
Brown, Stanley A. What Customers Value Most: How to Improve the Processes That Touch Your Customers. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.

卫南阳。顾客满意学。台北市：牛顿，民85。

(二)第二版以后之图书

第二版以后之图书，须在书名之后注明版次。APA Style且以括号标示。

Chicago Style

B:
Powell, Ronald R. Basic Research Methods for Librarians, 3rd ed. Greenwich, CT: Ablex, 1997.

胡述兆、吴祖善合着。图书馆学导论。二版。台北市：汉美，1991。

RL:
Powell, Ronald R. 1997. Basic research methods for librarians. 3rd ed. Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

胡述兆、吴祖善合着。1991。图书馆学导论。二版。台北市：汉美。

APA Style

　
Powell, R. R. (1997). Basic research methods for librarians (3rd ed.). Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

胡述兆、吴祖善(1991)。图书馆学导论(二版)。台北市：汉美。

MLA Style

　
Powell, Ronald R. Basic Research Methods for Librarians. 3rd ed. Greenwich, CT: Ablex, 1997.

胡述兆与吴祖善合着。图书馆学导论。二版。台北市：汉美，1991。

(三)编辑著作

编辑著作以编者或编辑者为作者，在姓名之后以ed, eds, comp.等标示其著作方式，以资区别。

Chicago Style

B:
Bailey, William G., comp. Guide to Popular U.S. Government Publications, 2nd ed. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1990.

Herron, Nancy. L., ed. The Social Sciences: A Cross-disciplinary Guide to Selected Sources. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1996.

杨国枢、文崇一、吴聪贤与李亦园编。社会及行为科学研究法。台北市：东华，民70。

RL:
Bailey, William G., comp. 1990. Guide to Popular U.S. Government Publications, 2nd ed. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

Herron, Nancy L., ed. 1996. The Social Sciences: A Cross-disciplinary Guide to Selected Sources. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

杨国枢、文崇一、吴聪贤与李亦园编。民70。社会及行为科学研究法。台北市：东华。

APA Style

　
Bailey, W. G. (Comp.). (1990). Guide to popular U.S. government publications (2nd ed.). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

Herron, N. L. (Ed.). (1996). The social sciences: A cross-disciplinary guide to selected sources. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

杨国枢、文崇一、吴聪贤、李亦园编(民70)。社会及行为科学研究法。台北市：东华。

MLA Style

　
Bailey, William G., comp. Guide to Popular U.S. Government Publications, 2nd ed. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1990.

Herron, Nancy. L., ed. The Social Sciences: A Cross-disciplinary Guide to Selected Sources. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1996.

杨国枢、文崇一、吴聪贤、李亦园编。社会及行为科学研究法。台北市：东华，民70。

(四)编辑著作中的单篇论文或章节

编辑著作中之单篇论文或是图书中之章节，应先着录单篇论文之作者以及论文名称，之后再着录编辑著作或是论文集之名称与编者，并注明单篇论文之起迄页码。

Chicago Style

B:
Shapiro, Beth J. “Access and Performance Measures in Research Libraries in the 1990’s.” In Library Management in the Information Technology Environment: Issues, Policies, and Practice for Administrators, ed. Brice G. Hobrock, 49-66. New York: Haworth, 1992.

谢宝暖。「服务蓝图应用于馆藏管理服务品质改善之研究」。在图书馆与信息研究论集：庆祝胡述兆教授七秩荣庆论文集，胡述兆教授七秩荣庆祝寿论文集编辑小组编，657-674。台北市：汉美，1996。

RL:
Shapiro, Beth J. 1992. Access and performance measures in research libraries in the 1990’s. In Library management in the information technology environment: issues, policies, and practice for administrators, ed. Brice G. Hobrock, 49-66. New York: Haworth.

谢宝暖。1996。服务蓝图应用于馆藏管理服务品质改善之研究。在图书馆与信息研究论集：庆祝胡述兆教授七秩荣庆论文集，胡述兆教授七秩荣庆祝寿论文集编辑小组编，657-674。台北市：汉美。

APA Style

　
Shapiro, B. J. (1992). Access and performance measures in research libraries in the 1990’s. In B. G. Hobrock (Ed.), Library management in the information technology environment: issues, policies, and practice for administrators (pp. 49-66). New York: Haworth.

谢宝暖(1996)。服务蓝图应用于馆藏管理服务品质改善之研究。在胡述兆教授七秩荣庆祝寿论文集编辑小组编，图书馆与信息研究论集：庆祝胡述兆教授七秩荣庆论文集(页657-674)。台北市：汉美。

MLA Style

　
Shapiro, Beth J. “Access and Performance Measures in Research Libraries in the 1990’s.” Library Management in the Information Technology Environment: Issues, Policies, and Practice for Administrators, ed. Brice G. Hobrock. New York: Haworth, 1992. 49-66.

谢宝暖。「服务蓝图应用于馆藏管理服务品质改善之研究」。图书馆与信息研究论集：庆祝胡述兆教授七秩荣庆论文集，胡述兆教授七秩荣庆祝寿论文集编辑小组编。台北市：汉美，1996。657-674。

(五)翻译作品

翻译作品原著者之中译姓名、原名均出现在书名页或封面，则将译名列于前，原名加圆括号列于后。翻译作品之原书名若未出现在书名页或封面时，不予着录，若标示于书上，则以圆括号列于中译书名之后。

Chicago Style

B:
Freud, S. An Outline of Psychoanalysis (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York: Norton, 1970.

奈思比(Naisbitt, J.)、奥伯汀(Aburdene, P.)着。二○○○年大趋势(Megatrends 2000) (尹萍译)。台北市：天下文化，1990。

RL:
Freud, S. 1970. An outline of psychoanalysis (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York: Norton.

奈思比(Naisbitt, J.)、奥伯汀(Aburdene, P.)着。1990。二○○○年大趋势(Megatrends 2000)(尹萍译)。台北市：天下文化。

APA Style

　
Freud, S. (1970). An outline of psychoanalysis (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York: Norton. (Original work published 1940).

奈思比(Naisbitt, J.)、奥伯汀(Aburdene, P.)着(1990)。二○○○年大趋势(Megatrends 2000)(尹萍译)。台北市：天下文化。(原作1991出版)

MLA Style

　
Freud, S. An Outline of Psychoanalysis (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York: Norton, 1970.

奈思比(Naisbitt, J.)、奥伯汀(Aburdene, P.)着。二○○○年大趋势(Megatrends 2000) (尹萍译)。台北市：天下文化，1990。

三、期刊中之论文

　　一般常将带有数字或年月编号，定期出版之连续性出版品，统统视为期刊。然而在写作手册中对于学术性期刊(Journals)和通俗杂志(Magazines)的着录方式是有所区别的。引用期刊所刊载之论文时，须注意期刊页码编制方式，若为分卷分期，各期分开编码者，须注明卷数和出版年月日；若为各卷不分期，连续编码者，则只须注明卷数和出版年月日，而无须注明期数。至于通俗性杂志，可省略卷期，只须注明年月日即可。此外，若为特刊、增刊、附刊等，亦应特别注明。

　　引用期刊论文时，应该包括下列信息：

˙作者

˙论文的完整题名(若有副书名亦应包括在内)

˙期刊名称

˙卷期数

˙出版年(月日)

˙页数

　　三种Style均将期刊区分为学术期刊(journals)、杂志(magazines)(注7)、报纸(newspapers)三类着录。期刊与杂志之格式主要差别在于期刊应注明卷期，而杂志则应注明年月日。期刊之着录格式又分为分卷连续编码或是分卷分期各别编码，兹分别介绍如下。

(一)连续编码之期刊文章

　　各卷连续编码之期刊只须注明卷数，无须注明期数。

Chicago Style

B:
Watters, C. R., M. A. Shepherd, and F. J. Burkowski. “Electronic News Delivery Project.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 49 (February 1998): 134-150.

梁朝云、张弘毅。「网络虚拟实境与情境学习的整合应用」。教育资料与图书馆学36(民87年12月)：197-224。

RL:
Watters, C. R., M. A. Shepherd, and F. J. Burkowski. 1998. Electronic news delivery project. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 49 (February): 134-150.

梁朝云、张弘毅。民87。网络虚拟实境与情境学习的整合应用。教育资料与图书馆学 36(12月)：197-224。

APA Style

　
Watters, C. R., Shepherd, M. A., & Burkowski, F. J. (1998). Electronic news delivery project. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 49, 134-150.

梁朝云、张弘毅(民87)。网络虚拟实境与情境学习的整合应用。教育资料与图书馆学，36，197-224。

MLA Style

　
Watters, C. R., M. A. Shepherd, and F. J. Burkowski. “Electronic News Delivery Project.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 49 (1998): 134-150.

梁朝云、张弘毅。「网络虚拟实境与情境学习的整合应用」。教育资料与图书馆学 36(民87)：197-224。

(二)各期单独编码之期刊文章

　　各卷分期单独编码之期刊，应注明卷数与期数。

Chicago Style

B:
Reimus, Byron. “The IT System That Couldn’t Deliver.” Harvard Business Review 75, no. 3 (1997): 22-35.

谢宝暖。「从服务接触谈图书馆之服务环境管理」。大学图书馆 1 卷4期(民86年10月) ：31-51。

RL:
Reimus, Byron. 1997. The IT system that couldn’t deliver. Harvard Business Review 75, no. 3: 22-35.

谢宝暖。民86。「从服务接触谈图书馆之服务环境管理」。大学图书馆 1卷4期(10月) ：31-51。

APA Style

　
Reimus, B.(1997). The IT system that couldn’t deliver. Harvard Business Review, 75(3), 22-35.

谢宝暖(民86)。从服务接触谈图书馆之服务环境管理。大学图书馆，1(4)，31-51。

MLA Style

　
Reimus, Byron. “The IT System That Couldn’t Deliver.” Harvard Business Review 75.3 (1997): 22-35.

谢宝暖。「从服务接触谈图书馆之服务环境管理」。大学图书馆1.4 (民86) ：31-51。

(三)期刊中之书评(Reviews in Periodicals)

　　刊载在期刊中之书评，应注明评论者、被评论之书名及作者，以及所刊载之期刊，期刊之着录规则同上。

Chicago Style

B:
Miller, Jerry P. Review of The global information society, by William J. Martin. Library & Information Science Research 19, no.1 (1997): 105-106.

詹丽萍。评现代图书馆学探讨，顾敏着。中国图书馆学会会报 43(民77年12月)：151-152。

RL:
Miller, Jerry P. 1997. Review of The global information society, by William J. Martin. Library & Information Science Research 19, no. 1: 105-106.

詹丽萍。民77。评现代图书馆学探讨，顾敏着。中国图书馆学会会报 43(12月)：151-152。

APA Style

　
Miller, J. P. (1997). [Book Review of The global information society]. Library & Information Science Research, 19, 105-106.

詹丽萍(民77)。[评现代图书馆学探讨]。中国图书馆学会会报，43， 151-152。

MLA Style

　
Miller, Jerry P. Rev. of The global information society, by William J. Martin. Library & Information Science Research 19.1 (1997): 105-106.

詹丽萍。评现代图书馆学探讨，顾敏着。中国图书馆学会会报 43(民77年12月)：151-152。

四、杂志文章

　　引用杂志上所刊载的文章时，应该包括下列信息：

˙作者

˙文

发布于11月16日 11:08 | 评论数(0) 阅读数(2623) | 我的文章

The stroop effect 转贴

The stroop effect:

Initially described by J. R. Stroop in 1935 as part of his doctoral dissertation.

Present words whose colors are different than the word itself. Name the color of the ink.

Example: the word 'red' in green ink:
red

Answer: green

Hypothesis that you will test: Subjects have difficulty in this task. It takes them longer to name the color if it does not match the word.

The Stroop effect demonstrates the difficulties in processing multiple mental representations (linguistic and color representations).

The stimuli appear to activate at least two separable representations:

1) Each stimulus's color (what the subject is supposed to focus on)

2) A representation of a color "concept" associated with the actual word. This activation should be irrelevant to the task.

Activation of the representation associated with the "word" seems to be automatic.

The Stroop effect persists even after 1000s of trials of practice.

Possible explanation: You have spent years of practice in analyzing letter strings for their symbolic meaning, and therefore cannot easily ignor them.

The area of the brain that seems important to the Stroop effect is the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

fMRI studies have shown differential activation of the ACC when comparing color naming when the stimulus is mismatchd versus matched.

The experiment you will run is a two-factor design

Factor 1:
Naming method (two levels):
1) Name the color: Red (A: green)
2) Name the word: Red (A: red)

Factor 2:
Color matching method (three levels):

1) Color matches word
Red

2) Color does not match word
Red

3) Unrelated condition

Taxi

For a review see:
MacLeod, C. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psych. Bulletin, 109, 163-203.

http://orion.oac.uci.edu/~kourosh/psych112p/112p5.html

发布于11月15日 11:20 | 评论数(0) 阅读数(1175) | 我的文章

Language and the Brain 一本书

Language and the Brain

by Loraine Obler, Kris Gjerlow - Provided by Cambridge University Press through the Google Print Publisher Program

Synopsis

How do our brains enable us to speak creatively and build up an understanding of language? This accessible book examines the linguistic and neuro-anatomical underpinnings of language and considers how language skills can systematically break down in individuals with different types of brain damage. By studying children with language disorders, adults with right-hemisphere brain damage, demented patients and people with reading problems, the authors provide an understanding of how language is organised in the brain.

Reviews

..."the book seems to be an excellent source for a quick overview of the field of neurolinguistics...truly interesting work..." The Phonetician

Related information

?Web search for reviews of Language and the Brain

?Other web pages related to Language and the Brain

Bibliographic information

Title	Language and the Brain
Author(s)	Loraine Obler, Kris Gjerlow
Publisher	Cambridge University Press
Publication Date	Feb 13, 1998
Subject	Language Arts / Linguistics / Literacy
Format	Paperback
Pages	224
Dimensions	5.08 x 7.72 x 0.53 in
ISBN	0521466415

发布于11月14日 18:21 | 评论数(0) 阅读数(963) | 我的文章

Dr. Ernesto Pereda Non-linear analysis of biological signal

Dr. Ernesto Pereda

Grupo de Ingenier韆 el閏trica y bioingenier韆, Departamento de F韘ica B醩ica

Facultad de F韘ica y Matem醫icas (Edf. Calabaza), Universidad de La Laguna

Avda. Astrof韘ico Fco. S醤chez, s/n, 38205, La Laguna, Tenerife.

Tfno: +34 922318654/8314. Fax: +34 922318228;

e-mail: eperdepa@ull.es

BREVE CV/ BRIEF CV:

Educaci髇 / Education

B. Sc. in Applied Physics, University of La Laguna, SPAIN                  (1996)
Ph. D. in Neuroscience, Department of Physiology, University of La Laguna, SPAIN                                                                                  (2001)

L韓eas de Investigaci髇 / Research Interests

Fractal analysis; chaos theory; non-linear time-series analysis; Dynamical systems theory to characterize experimental signals (mainly in biological systems); sleep

Experiencia en Investigaci髇 /Research Experience and Appointments:

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">        Research Fellow, Dept. of Electronics, National University of La Matanza, Buenos Aires (ARGENTINA)                               August-September 1996.

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">        Ph. D. student, Laboratory of Biophysics, Dept. of Physiology, University of La Laguna                                                                1997-2000.

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">        Visiting scientist, Non-linear time series analysis group, Max Planck Institute for the Physics of complex Systems, (Dresden, GERMANY)                   1999.

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">        Post-doctoral fellow, Dept. of Systems' Engineering and Dept. of Enviromental Sciences, Institute of Technologies and Renewable Energy (ITER), Tenerife (SPAIN)                                                            2000-2002.

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">        Visiting scientist, Commission for Scientific Visualization, Austrian Academy of Sciences, (Vienna, AUSTRIA)                   2005

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">        Present position: Assistant Professor, Department of Basic Physics, University of La Laguna, Tenerife (SPAIN)                                             2002-

   Premios/Awards:

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">        Young Scientist Award, Area of Medicine and Health Science, Canary Goverment (2000).

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">        Agustin de Bethencourt Award in Science and Technology, CajaCanarias (2000).

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">        Ph. D. Award, Area of Medicine and Health Science, University of La Laguna (2001).

PUBLICACIONES / PUBLICATIONS (only full-refereed, international journals included in the JCR):

Pereda E, Gamundi A, Rial R, Gonzalez J (1998), Non-linear behaviour of human EEG: fractal exponent versus correlation dimension in awake and sleep stages, Neurosci Lett. 250 (2):91-94.

Pereda E, Gamundi A, Nicolau M, Rial R, Gonz醠ez J (1999) Interhemispheric differences in awake and sleep human EEG: a comparison between non-linear and spectral measures, Neurosci Lett. 263(1):37-40.

Gonz醠ez J, Gamundi A, Rial R, Nicolau MC, De Vera L, Pereda E (1999) Nonlinear, fractal, and spectral analysis of the EEG of lizard, Gallotia galloti, Am J Physiol 277(46): R86-R93.

De Vera L, Gonz醠ez J, Pereda E (2000) Relationship between cortical electrical and cardiac autonomic activities in the awake lizard, Gallotia galloti, J Exp Zoolog A Comp Exp Biol 287: 21-28.

Gonz醠ez J, Cordero JJ, Feria M, Pereda E (2000) Detection and sources of non-linearity in the variability of cardiac R-R intervals and blood pressure in rats, Am J Physiol 279: H3040-3046.

Bhattacharya J, Pereda E, Kariyappa R, Kanjilal PP (2001), Application of Non-linear Analysis to Intensity Oscillations of the Chromospheric Bright Points, Solar Physics 199 (2): 267-290.

Pereda E, Gamund?/SPAN> A, Rial RV, Gonz醠ez J (2001) Assessment of changing interdependencies between human electroencephalograms using nonlinear methods, Physica D 148:147-158

Bhattacharya J, Petsche H, Pereda E (2001) Interdependencies in the Spontaneous EEG While Listening to Music, Int J Psychophysiol 42 (3): 287-301.

Bhattacharya J, Petsche H, Pereda E (2001) Long-range Synchrony in the Gamma Band: Role in Music Perception, J Neurosci 21:6329-6337.

Pereda E, Gamundi A, Rial RV, De Vera L, Gonz醠ez J (2002) Evidence of state- dependent interhemispheric relationships in lizard EEG during awake, IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 49(6): 548-555.

Pereda E, Ma馻s S, De Vera L, Garrido JM, L髉ez S, Gonz醠ez J (2003) Non-linear asymmetric interdependencies in the EEG of healthy term neonates during sleep, Neurosci Lett 337:101-105.

Rodr韌uez M, Gonz醠ez J, Sabat?/SPAN> M, Obeso J, Pereda E (2003) Firing regulation in dopaminergic cells: effect of the partial degeneration of nigraostriatal system in surviving neurons, Eur J Neurosci 18: 1-8.

Rodr韌uez M, Pereda E, Gonz醠ez J, Abdala P, Obeso JA (2003) How is firing activity of substantia nigra cells regulated? Relevance of pattern-code in the basal ganglia, Synapse 49: 216-225.

Rodr韌uez M, Pereda E, Gonz醠ez J, Abdala P, Obeso JA (2003) Neuronal activity in the substantia nigra in the anaesthetized rat has fractal characteristics. Evidence for firing-code patterns in the basal ganglia. Exp Brain Res 151: 167-172.

Bhattacharya J, Pereda E, Petsche H (2003) Effective detection of coupling in short and noisy bivariate data, IEEE T Syst Man Cyb B 33 (1): 85-95.

Gonz醠ez JJ, Pereda E (2004) Applications of fractal and non-linear time series analysis to the study of short-term cardiovascular control, Current Vasc Pharmacol 2(2):149-16.

De Vera L, Pereda E, Santana A, J.J. Gonz醠ez (2005) Time-related interdependence between low-frequency cortical activity and respiratory activity in lizard, Gallotia galloti, J Exp Zoolog A Comp Exp Biol. 1;303(3):217-26.

Pereda E, De La Cruz D.M., De Vera L, Gonz醠ez J.J. (2005) Comparing generalized and phase synchronization in cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory signals, IEEE Trans Biomed Eng Apr;52(4):578-83.

Pereda E, Quian Quiroga R, Bhattacharya B, Nonlinear multivariate analysis of neurophysiological signals, Progress in Neurobiology (in press)

Pereda E et al, Topography of EEG complexity in human neonates: effect of the postmenstrual age and the sleep state, Neurosci. Lett. (in press).

You can get a PDF copy of most of these papers by clicking the title. If the paper you are interested in is not available, please send me an email here, and I will send you a copy in a different format.

Submitted works:

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">         DM de la Cruz, S. Ma馻s, Pereda E et al, Maturational changes in the interdependencies between cortical brain areas of neonates during sleep, submitted to Cerebral Cortex (accepted pending revision)

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">         DM de la Cruz, Pereda E et al, Electroencephalographic interdependencies in term and preterm neonates at term postmenstrual age: a Linear and non-linear analysis, submitted to Clinical Neurophysiology

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">               OTROS TRABAJOS/OTHER PUBLICATIONS

?SPAN style="FONT: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">

Co-operation in the brain in higher cognitive functioning,

J. Bhattacharya, H. Petsche, E. Pereda

Interjournal of Complex Systems, 352, 2000.

www.interjournal.org

Revisiting the dynamics of Chromospheric Bright points

J. Bhattacharya, R. Kariyappa, E. Pereda, P.P. Kanjilal

Interjournal of Complex Systems, 353, 2000.

www.interjournal.org

Synchronization in the brain ?Assessment by electroencephalographic signals

Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2084, pp: 108-116, Ed. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, 2001.

Interdependencia entre se馻les: relaciones interhemisf閞icas e interacciones entre el SNC y el SNA

J. J. Gonz醠ez, L. De Vera, D. M. De La Cruz, E. Pereda.

Fisiolog韆 7(1): 5-8. 2004.

Aplicaci髇 de la teor韆 de sistemas din醡icos al an醠isis de se馻les biom閐icas

E. Pereda, L. De Vera, D. M. De La Cruz, J.J. Gonz醠ez.

Fisiolog韆 7(1): 8-11. 2004.

Study of the Cardiorespiratory Interaction: a Non-linear Approach

E Pereda, DM De La Cruz, S. Ma馻s, JM Garrido, S. Lopez, J. Gonzalez

WSEAS Trans. Biol. Biomed. 1(1): 103-106, 2004.

Book:

Aplicabilidad de t閏nicas de la din醡ica de sistemas no lineales en el an醠isis multivariante de se馻les caracter韘ticas de la actividad nerviosa central y auton髆ica

E. Pereda, J. Gonz醠ez, Ed. Servicio de Publicaciones CajaCanarias, ISBN:84-7985-134-1, 2002.

Book Chapters:

Non-linear and Fractal Dynamics of Absence-like Phenomena (SWD) in WAG/Rij rat EEGs

A. Gamundi, C.M. van Rijn, E. Pereda, J. Gonz醠ez, R. Rial, M.C. Nicolau, A.M.L. Coenen

Sleep-Wake Research in the Netherlands, Vol.: 11, 58-64, 2000.

Ed. Dutch Society for Sleep-Wake Research, (Holland)

Evidence of Asymmetric Interdependencies in Human EEG under Anaesthesia with Propofol

A. Gamundi, C.M. van Rijn, E. Pereda, J. Gonz醠ez, R. Rial, M.C. Nicolau, A.M.L. Coenen

Sleep-Wake Research in the Netherlands, Vol.: 12, 35-39, 2001.

Ed. Van Zuiden Communications, B.V. (Holland)

发布于11月13日 22:39 | 评论数(0) 阅读数(997) | 我的文章

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我们一起成长

9 Neurocognition of Language Processing

9.1.2 The reading of words and pseudowords

Abbreviations

Avoiding Biased and Pejorative Language

Correct use of the terms "gender" and "sex"

Sensitivity to labels

Capitalization

Commas

Hyphenation

Italics (Underlining)

Miscellaneous: Colons, dashes, parentheses, numbering paragraphs

Numbers

Quotation Marks

Extended quotations

Do NOT use quotes to . . .

Headings

Text details

References and tables

Table notes

Abbreviating within a reference

Alphabetizing within reference lists

APA reference style

Anonymous or unknown author (common in newspapers):

Books (Group author, 3? authors, reprint/translation, edition other than first):

Chapter or section in a book (online & print):

Conference paper (unpublished):

Government report online accessed through GPO database:

Journal articles (Print, electronic copy, changed source, online journal, paged by issue):

Letter to the editor:

O'Neill, G. W. (1992, January). In support of DSM-III [Letter to the editor]. APA Monitor, 4-5.

Magazine article:

Newsletter/newspaper articles:

Pamphlet:

Web page:

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